
Class _Z 

Book J )rA ^ . 
Gopyrigltt}l° 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 




WROUGHT -PIPE 
DRAINAGE 
SYSTEMS 



By 



J. J. COSGROVE 




Author of 

'PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PLUMBING" 
"SEWAGE PURIFICATION AND DISPOSAL" 

"HISTORY OF SANITATION" 

"PLUMBING PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS" 

"PLUMBING ESTIMATES AND CONTRACTS" 

"DESIGN OF TURKISH BATHS" 



Published by 



Standard ^Saititar^ TDfe, Co, 

Pittsburgh, U. S. A , 



COPYRIGHT 1909, STANDARD SANITARY MFG. CO., PITTSBURGH, PJ 



\ 



PREFACE 




'HE subject of Wrought Pipe has long 
deserved a place in technical literature, 
and the present little volume is now 
offered to the public in the hope that 
it will fill that place and be found an 

invaluable aid to those who have the installing of 

iron pipe systems. 

The work is much broader in its scope than 
the name would imply. A more descriptive title, 
perhaps, would have been "The Manipulation of 
Wrought Pipe", for the text is applicable to any 
system of piping whatsoever which is put together 
with screw threads. Outside of one chapter which 
deals entirely with the taking of measurements for 
wrought-pipe drainage systems, the text applies 
equally to the working of wrought pipe for heating 
systems, refrigerating systems, pipe lines, drive 
wells, power plants, or any other use to which iron 
pipe may be put. It follows, therefore, that the 
book would be equally valuable to workers in these 
several allied lines. 

The volume was not intended solely for the use 
of helpers and apprentices. Of course, it should 
be among the very first bdoks given a beginner to 
study; but it will be found, likewise, to contain 
much of value to the Journeyman, Superintendent, 
Contractor and Engineer. 

J. J. COSGROVE. 



Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 
December 15, 1909 



'c:^ 



©CU2.'53«5G 





PUBLISHER'S NOTE 

I HE primary object of our organization is, as is 
universally known, to manufacture and 
market '^^tandexd!' Plumbing Fixtures, Brass 
Goods and other products made in our factor- 
ies. In the development of an organization 
to accomplish this result, there has been 
established an Advertising and Publishing 
Department of no small proportions, and "Wrought Pipe 
Drainage Systems" is the outgrowth of the work of this 
department. This brief statement will, we believe, serve to 
give the public a clear understanding of our somewhat unique 
position of being at the same time manufacturer and 
publisher. 

The first serious work of the Publishing Department 
on a large scale was "Modern Sanitation" (established 
June, 1904). From this came the publication, first in serial 
form and later as a book, J. J. Cosgrove's first work, 
"Principles and Practice of Plumbing" (book published 
December, 1906) . The phenomenal success of the book is a 
matter of general knowledge, although it may not be widely 
known that "Principles and Practice of Plumbing" has been 
adopted as a text book in more than thirty universities and 
colleges in the United States, and bids fair to be adopted in 
others. This achievement has been accomplished solely on 
the merit of the work and without solicitation on the part of 
either the author or publisher. 

"History of Sanitation" (published February, 1909) 
and "Sewage Purification and Disposal" (published March, 
1909) by the same author have in the short time in which 
they have been offered to the public, duplicated the success 
of "Principles and Practice of Plumbing" and both the 
author and publisher feel that "Wrought Pipe Drainage 
Systems" will be equally successful. 

In "Wrought Pipe Drainage Systems", "Sewage 
Purification and Disposal", "History of Sanitation", 
and "Principles and Practice of Plumbing" we feel that the 
literature of the craft has been enriched in an enduring 
manner, and that we have justified our appearance in the 
field of publishers as amply as we have our standing as 
manufacturers of a world-wide known and used product. 

Publishing Department Pittsburgh, U. S. A. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Materials for Wrought Pipe Drainage Systems 1 

Working Wrought Pipe 17 

Pipe Cutting and Threading Tools 31 

Wrought Pipe Fittings 47 

Recessed Drainage Fittings 55 

Bending Wrought Pipe 71 

Making-up Pipe 79 

Measurements and Sketches 83 

Planning the Work 101 

Installing Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 117 

Working Polished Brass and Nickel-plated Pipe... 133 
Welding Wrought Pipes by Thermit Process 141 



LIST OF TABLES 



TABLE PAGE 

I. Weights and Dimensions of Standard Wrought 

Pipe 12 

II. Weights and Dimensions of Extra Strong 

Wrought Pipe 13 

III. Weights and Dimensions of Extra Strong 

Wrought Pipe 15 

IV. Length of Perfect Pipe Threads 45 

V. Stock Sizes of Right-hand Nipples 51 

VI. Stock Sizes of Right-and-Lef t Hand Nipples 52 

VII. Radii for Pipe Bends 73 

VIII. Length of Straight Pipe X of Bends 73 

IX. Size and Range of Pipe Wrenches 81 

X. Size of Chain Tongs 82 

XI. Ratios for Different Angles 90 

XII. Size and Bearing Capacity of Pipe Hangers 123 

XIII. Expansion of Cast-Iron Pipe 131 

XIV. Expansion of Wrought Pipe 131 

XV. Expansion of Brass Pipe 131 

XVI. Sizes and Weights of Seamless Brass Tubing 134 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIG. PAGE 

1 Butt-Weld Pipe 10 

2 Lap-Weld Pipe 10 

3 Wheel-and-Roller Pipe Cutter 17 

4 Three-Wheel Pipe Cutter 18 

5 Pipe Reamer 19 

6 Perfect 2Hnch Thread 20 

7 Male and Female Threads United 21 

8 Pipe Thread Gauges 22 

9 Armstrong Stock and Dies 24 

10 Tin Brushing for Stock Guide 25 

11 Die Attachment for Cutting Deep Threads 26 

12 Method of Cutting Crooked Threads 28 

13 Crooked Threads Forming Offset in Pipe 29 

14 Nipple Chuck 29 

15 Pipe Fitters' Bench 32 

16 Small Hinged Vise, Open 33 

17 Large Hinged Vise, Closed 33 

18 Forbes Hand Pipe-Threading Machine 34 

19 Armstrong Hand Pipe-Threading Machine 34 

20 Crane Power Pipe-Cutting Machine 35 

21 Old Form of Chaser 37 

22 Correct Form of Chaser 38 

23 Correct Form of Chaser 39 

24 Armstrong Dies, before and after grinding to 

correct form 39 

25 Chaser showing Clearance 40 

26 Clearance for Nye Dies 42 

27 Rake for Nye Dies 43 

28 Section Through Ordinary Pipe Fitting 47 

29 Section Through Plain Fitting 48 

30 Section Through Beaded Fitting 48 

31 Section Through Cast Iron Fitting 48 

32 Cross Fitting 49 

33 Tee Fitting 49 

34 Elbow 49 

35 45° Bend 50 

36 Right-and-Left Coupling 50 

37 Right-and-Left Elbow 50 

38 Close Nipple 50 

39 Shoulder Nipple 50 

40 Flange Union ' 52 

41 Pipe Union 53 



FIG. PAGE 

42 Section of Recessed Drainage Fitting 55 

43 Running Trap, Two Cleanouts 56 

44 Half S Trap 56 

45 Three-Quarter S Trap 56 

46 Y Branch 56 

47 Double Y Branch 57 

48 Three-Way Elbow.... 57 

49 Short Sweep TY Fitting 57 

50 Long Turn TY Fitting 57 

51 TY Fitting with Side Outlets 57 

52 TY Fitting with Side Outlets and Vent Connection 58 

53 Double TY Fitting, Short Turn ., 58 

54 Double TY Fitting, Long Turn 58 

55 T Fitting ....' 58 

56 Return Bend 59 

57 Increaser 59 

58 Offset 59 

59 Roof Connection 59 

60 Comparative Angles of Bends 61 

61 Short-Turn 45° Bend 62 

62 Long-Turn 45° Bend 62 

63 Short-Turn 60° Bend 62 

64 Long-Turn Elbow 62 

65 Short-Turn Elbow 62 

66 Comparative Long-Turn and Short-Turn Bends 63 

67 Comparative Long-Turn and Short-Turn Bends 63 

68 Y Fitting and 45° Bend 64 

69 Closet Elbow 64 

70 Ball-Joint Metal-to-Metal Closet Floor Connection 

— Iron Pipe 65 

71 Ball Joint Metal-to-Metal Floor Connection — Lead 

Pipe 65 

72 Base Elbow, for Wrought Pipe 66 

73 Base Elbow, for Cast Iron and Wrought Pipe 66 

74 Center of Elbow 66 

75 Center of 45° Bend 67 

76 Center of T Fitting 67 

77 Center of TY Fitting 68 

78 Center of Double TY Fitting 68 

79 Center of Y Fitting 69 

80 Center of Double Y Fitting 69 

81 Center of Y and 45° Bend 70 

82 Quarter Bend in Pipe 72 

83 Return Bend in Pipe 72 

84 Offset Bend in Pipe .". 72 

85 Expansion Loop 74 

86 Spiral Coil 74 

87 Continuous Double Coil 75 

88 Open Conical Coil 75 

89 Close Conical Coil 75 

90 Close Flat Coil 76 



FIG. PAGE 

91 Reducing Coil 76 

92 Box Coil Nested 76 

93 Pipe-Bending Form 77 

94 Pipe-Bending Machine 77 

95 Stillson Wrench 80 

96 Trimo Wrench 80 

97 Vulcan Chain Tongs 81 

98 Robbins' Chain Tongs 81 

99 End-to-End Measurement 84 

100 Center-to-End Measurement 85 

101 Center-to- Center Measurement 86 

102 Diagram Explaining Degrees in Fittings 88 

103 45° Measurement 89 

104 Measurement for 45° Connection 91 

105 Pipe Sketch for Sending to Shop 93 

106 Pipe Sketch for Workman's Own Use 95 

107 Plan of Battery of Closets 96 

108 Laying Out Measurements for Closets 96 

109 Measurements for Battery of Closets 97 

110 Taking Back- Vent Measurements 97 

111 Taking Measurements for Roughing-in a Bathroom 103 

112 Basement Plan of Hospital 105 

113 First Floor Plan of Hospital 107 

114 Second Floor Plan of Hospital 109 

115 Third Floor Plan of Hospital Ill 

116 Fourth Floor Plan of Hospital 113 

117 Protractor 114 

118 Single Flange Connection 119 

119 Double Flange Connection 119 

120 Running-Thread Connection 121 

121 Netherland Pipe Hanger 122 

122 Wall Bracket for Pipe 122 

123 Pipe Hanger for Iron Beam 124 

124 Pipe Hanger for Wooden Beam 124 

125 Strap Iron Hanger 125 

126 Figure Eight Hanger 125 

127 Swing Joint for Soil Stacks 126 

128 Flexible Connection for Water Closets 127 

129 Expansion Loop for Hot Water Pipes 128 

130 Vise and Wrench Jaws or Clamp for Brass Pipe . . . 134 

131 Plank for Bending Brass Pipe 137 

132 Wrench for Brass and Nickel-plated Pipe 138 

133 Method of Using Brass Pipe Wrench 138 

134 Brass Pipe Wrench 139 

135 Clamps for Welding by Thermit Process 143 

136 Mold for Thermit Welding 145 

137 Crucible in Clamps for Thermit Welding 145 




v»>- — w"'"*==»=- 



WROUGHT -PIPE 
DRAINAGE 
SYSTEMS 




v;„:- 



CHAPTER I 



MATERIALS FOR WROUGHT-PIPE 
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS 



PROPERTIES OF WROUGHT PIPE 




INTRODUCTORY 

HISTORICAL. -The wrought-pipe 
drainage system, formerly known as 
the Durham System of House Drainage, 
^ was first introduced in plumbing prac- 

c_^--^w.„^ -J tice about the year 1880. In April of 
that year Caleb W. Durham, C. E., applied for 
letters patent on a system of house drainage that 
was independent of the support of the building and 
could not be affected by a settlement thereof. The 
most important feature of the Durham System of 
House Drainage was a recessed threaded fitting, 
which, when screwed on a pipe, presented at the 
joints a smooth, continuous inner surface without 
pocket or projection to impede the flow of sewage. 
This feature, the recessed drainage fitting, was the 
most important element in the patent, however, 



»\ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems Q 



and as soon as the patent expired "Durham 
Fittings" were made by numerous manufacturers, 
who gave to them the name "Recessed Drainage 
Fittings." 

Advantages of Wrought-Pipe Systems.— 

Wrought-pipe drainage systems did not immediate- 
ly spring into general use. It was only upon the 
advent of steel-frame skyscraping buildings, when 
a stronger, more flexible system of piping was 
needed than could be had with cast-iron pipe, that 
wrought-pipe drainage systems were adopted. 
Among the many reasons why wrought pipe, with 
recessed drainage fittings, was considered better 
than cast-iron soil pipe, with lead-calked joints, for 
drainage systems in tall buildings, may be men- 
tioned: greater strength and permanency of the 
joints, which are not affected by the alternate 
expansion and contraction of the lines; greater 
strength of the pipe and fittings; greater flexibihty 
of the pipe and of the system as a whole; greater 
variety in the size of pipe and fittings, and a less 
number of joints. 

Wrought-pipe drainage systems do not differ, 
in the principles of installation, from that of any 
other system of house drainage; it is only in the 
materials of which the system is constructed, and 
the manner in which the materials are handled and 
worked, that the systems differ. 

Wrought-Iron and Steel Pipe. — At the present 
time the name wrought-iron pipe is a misnomer. 
Formerly all screw pipe was made of wrought iron, 
but recent improvements in the manufacture of 

2 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systemi 

soft Bessemer steel have so cheapened the cost of 
production that steel pipe has practically driven 
wrought-iron pipe from the markets. In the early 
stages of steel-pipe manufacture, chilling of the 
pipe after welding sometimes left hard spots in the 
steel that could be detected when cutting and 
threading the pipe ; furthermore, imperfect welding 
sometimes caused a pipe to split for several feet 
along the weld when being threaded or screwed in 
place. Such progress has been made toward 
improving the temper and weld of pipe steel, how- 
ever, that to-day wrought-iron pipe can scarcely be 
distinguished from steel pipe, so far as the cutting, 
threading and splitting is concerned; in appearance, 
however, the two materials differ. According to 
the April, 1906, number of The Valve World, pub- 
lished by the Crane Company, wrought-iron pipe 
can be distinguished from steel pipe by observing 
the following differences: 

"Iron pipe is rough in appearance and the 
scale on it is heavy, whereas the scale on steel pipe 
is very light and has the appearance of small blis- 
ters or bubbles, underneath which the surface is 
smooth and somewhat white. Steel pipe seldom 
breaks when flattened, but if a fracture does occur 
it will be noticed that the grain is very fine. Iron 
pipe when subjected to the same flattening test 
breaks easily, and shows a coarse fracture, due to 
the long fiber of the material." 

Tensile Strength of Wrought Pipe.— Wrought 
pipes are made much thicker and stronger than is 
necessary to withstand the internal pressures to 
which, under ordinary conditions, they are sub- 



»N Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems Q 



jected. This additional thickness and strength is 
necessary to withstand the various stresses incident 
to cutting and threading pipes and screwing them 
in place, also the severe strains that pipe lines 
must withstand when subjected to alternate con- 
traction and expansion. 

The tensile strength of a pipe is the resistance 
it offers to the fiber of its metal being torn apart. 
Tensile strength of pipe varies with the material of 
which it is composed, and it would naturally follow 
that the material which possesses the greatest 
tensile strength, all other qualities being equal, 
would make the best pipe material. The tensile 
strength of soft steel, such as is used in the manu- 
facture of pipe, is about 61,825 pounds per square 
inch, and the tensile strength of wrought iron is 
about 34,520 pounds per square inch. It follows, 
therefore, that for pipes of equal size and thick- 
nesses, steel pipe will withstand a working pressure 
of almost double that of wrought-iron pipe, and, so 
far as the strength of the two materials is con- 
cerned, it is the better pipe material. 

It might be inferred from the fact that steel 
pipe possesses almost double the tensile strength 
of wrought-iron pipe, that the walls of steel pipe 
could be made proportionately thinner, thus saving 
considerable in the material and weight of steel 
pipe. Other considerations, however, require that 
there be no appreciable difference between the 
thickness of walls of pipe made from the two 
metals; for instance, as steel pipe is about twice as 
strong as wrought-iron pipe, the loss from corrosion 
or other cause of a certain thickness from the walls 



%\ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems / ,^ 

^<S — rw». ..r ,, . mm . mr,.,,n,«m^«.^,.«mmm : mmn', ^^^ ^ ^ 

of a steel pipe would weaken it almost twice as 
much as would the loss of an equal thickness from 
the walls of a wrought-iron pipe. 

Strength of Seam in Wrought P i p e. — T h e 

tensile strength of a pipe metal cannot be taken as 
the actual strength of the pipe, for just as a chain 
is only as strong as its weakest link, so a pipe is 
only as strong as its weakest part, the seam. The 
strength of a welded seam varies with the amount 
of lap and the skill of the workman who makes the 
weld. In the case of wrought-iron pipe, the 
strength of the seam varies from 49 per cent, to 
84 per cent. , and will average about 70 per cent, of 
the tensile strength of the metal. On the other 
hand, the strength of the welded seams of steel 
pipe varies from about 50 per cent, to about 93 per 
cent., and will average about 72 per cent, of the 
tensile strength of the metal. 

So far, then, as the ratio between the strength 
of seam and tensile strength of the metal is con- 
cerned, there is but slight difference between that 
of wrought iron and steel; it should be remem- 
bered, however, that the tensile strength of steel 
is almost double that of wrought iron, consequent- 
ly the actual strength of a weld in steel, pipe is 
about double that in a wrought-iron pipe. It may 
safely be assumed, therefore, that a certain size 
and weight of steel pipe possesses about twice the 
strength of an equal size and weight of wrought- 
iron pipe, and will sustain almost double the work- 
ing pressure, besides withstanding almost double 
the torsional stresses without opening at the seam. 

5 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /* 



Torsional Strength of Wrought Pipe. — As 

would be expected from the greater tensile strength 
of steel and from the greater strength of a steel 
weld, steel pipe will withstand a much greater 
degree of torsional stress, without failing at the 
weld or being twisted off, than will equal weights 
and sizes of wrought-iron pipes. 

Corrosion of Wrought Pipes. — The life of 

wrought pipe buried in earth is materially short- 
ened by chemical action of the earth with which it 
comes in contact or by stray electric currents. For 
this reason wrought pipes are never used for the 
house drain in a building where the pipes must be 
buried in the soil, although they are sometimes 
used when the drains are run in underground pipe 
ducts. Certain kinds of soil are more energetic 
than others in attacking pipes. This is due to the 
chemical composition of the soil, which, if impreg- 
nated with sulphur, will corrode through the walls 
of wrought pipe in an incredibly short time. 

Soil is not the only material around buildings 
which has a corrosive effect on wrought pipes. 
Coal and coal cinders, or ashes, are equally des- 
tructive, as also is concrete made from cinders and 
cement. All coal contains more or less sulphur in 
the form of sulphide of iron, or iron pyrites, and, 
if in the process of combustion all sulphur is not 
driven off from the coal, the portion that remains 
in the cinder might be sufficient in quantity to 
form a sulphuric or sulphurous acid, either of 
which will energetically attack and destroy 
wrought pipes. In the case of cast-iron pipe there 

6 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems Q 



is less damage from such source. In casting soil 
pipe, a thin silicious scale or film forms on the out- 
side of the pipe and protects it from corrosion, 
unless the scale is removed by mechanical means 
or etched away by acid. It is due to this reason 
that cast-iron pipe is used for the underground 
portion of drainage systems which otherwise are 
made up of wrought pipes. 

Some brands of cement which contain sulphate 
of lime are quite destructive to wrought pipes; 
fortunately, however, most cements are free from 
sulphates, and when such grades are used and 
mixed with sand and crushed stones or gravel the 
resulting concrete will not appreciably injure pipes 
embedded in it. Good practice, however, requires 
that pipes which are to be embedded in cement be 
coated thoroughly with a good preservative, and, 
where conditions permit, wrapping the pipes in 
tarred paper will add greatly to the life of the pipe. 

So far as wrought iron and steel pipes are 
concerned, there is no appreciable difference be- 
tween their length of life under similar conditions 
of exposure to corrosion, and one can be accepted 
as equally good as the other. 

Galvanized Wrought Pipe.— Wrought pipe is 
galvanized by pickling it in a bath of acid, then 
immersing the pipe in a tank of molten zinc, or zinc 
and tin. When properly prepared, the pipe upon 
leaving the tank of molten metal is covered with a 
thin coating of the zinc, or zinc and tin, and this 
coating will protect the pipe from corrosion, some- 
times prolonging its life several times that of un- 

7 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



galvanized-iron pipe. Galvanizing, however, will 
not protect pipe from pitting, due to electrolysis. 

The process of galvanizing, while prolonging 
the life of the pipe by protecting it from corrosion, 
at the same time makes the pipe more brittle, so 
that a length of galvanized pipe will break under 
a strain which would not break an ungalvanized 
length of equal size and weight. If large galva- 
nized pipes are to be bent to fit in their respective 
places in an installation, the better practice is to 
bend the pipes first and have them galvanized 
afterward. It will be found much easier to bend 
the pipe when plain, and, by galvanizing them 
afterward, no tool marks or bending marks will 
show on the galvanizing. 

Galvanized pipe is the only kind of wrought 
pipe which is suitable for water supply. When 
plain wrought pipe is used for water-distributing 
mains, the iron dissolved by the water often im- 
parts a peculiar disagreeable taste to the water, 
besides in many instances rendering the water 
unfit for industrial purposes, on account of the 
iron it contains. 

Coating Wrought Pipes.— Wrought pipes for 
use in drainage systems are in many instances 
covered both inside and out with a coating of 
asphalt or pitch, applied hot. The manner of coat- 
ing pipes in many respects is similar to the process 
of galvanizing. The pipes are first heated, then 
immersed in a vat of molten pitch or asphalt, which 
adheres to the walls and dries out, leaving a smooth 
surface. Coating pipes is beneficial in many ways: 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



it prolongs the life of the pipe by protecting it 
from contact with earth, air or sewage, and the 
smooth surface reduces the friction within the 
pipe. 

Electrolysis of Wrought Pipes. — Electrolysis 
of wrought pipe is a pitting caused by stray electric 
currents flowing from the pipes to the surrounding 
earth. Electrolysis takes place only at the points 
where electric currents leave the pipes, not where 
they enter or pass along the line. Electrolysis 
always takes place on the outside of pipes, which 
is one way of distinguishing electrolysis from 
corrosion. There are no means of preventing 
electrolysis except by providing a suitable con- 
ductor from the point where the current escapes 
into the earth back to the dynamo where the elec- 
tricity is generated. Where suitable return con- 
ductors are provided but little damage is caused 
by electrolysis, while, on the other hand, where the 
return conductors are inadequate much damage is 
done by the vagrant currents. 

As wrought-iron and steel pipes are practically 
the same, they will be considered in this work, to- 
gether with all other pipes of whatever metal or 
alloy which are put together with screw joints, as 
wrought pipes. 

Butt Welded Pipe.— Small sizes of standard- 
weight wrought-iron and steel pipe, that is, pipe 
ranging in size from |-inch to 3 inches in diameter, 
are made by butting the two edges of metal to- 
gether, as shown in Fig. 1, and welding them in 
that position. This method of joining the edges 

9 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems •# 




Fig. 1 
Butt-Weld Pipe 



is known as a butt-weld and is used only in the 
manufacture of pipes that are tested to a less 

pressure than 600 
pounds per square 
inch. Butt-welded 
pipes, up to 2 inches in 
diameter, are tested to 
600 pounds per square inch, and all other sizes are 
tested to 1,000 pounds per square inch. 

Lap-Welded Pipe.— All standard-weight 
wrought pipes 3 inches and more in diameter, and 
all heavy wrought pipes, are made by lapping one 
edge of the metal over the other, as shown in Fig. 
2, and welding to a 
smooth cylindrical 
finish. This form of 
seam is known as a lap 
weld, and is used in 
the manufacture of 
large sizes of pipe, also for small pipes required 
for high pressure work where the pressure exceeds 
1,000 pounds per square inch. 

It is commonly supposed that wrought pipes 
are sent from the mills without being tested, not- 
withstanding the fact that the manufacturers state 
that they test every length. That belief is entirely 
wrong, however. Each length of wrought pipe, 
before being shipped, is actually tested by water 
pressure, and if found defective in any part, the 
defective portion is cut out, the pipe rethreaded, 
and again tested before being passed by the in- 
spector. 

10 




Fig. 2 
Lap-Weld Pipe 



&*• 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /^ 



The process of pipe welding is very simple. 
In the butt-weld operation, the pipe metal which 
has been cut to size, is heated in a long furnace to 
a welding temperature throughout, and is then 
quickly drawn through a bell-shaped ring which 
bends the plate into cylindrical shape and forces 
the edges together thereby forming a weld. The 
pipe is next passed through suitable rollers to give 
it the right outside diameter and is then straight- 
ened, threaded and tested. 

The lap-weld process consists of two opera- 
tions, bending and welding. The plate is brought 
to a red heat in a suitable furnace, and then passed 
through a set of rolls which bevel the edges, that 
when overlapped and welded the seam will be neat 
and smooth. It then passes direct to the bending 
machine where it is bent roughly into shape with 
the two edges overlapping. The skelp is then 
heated in another furnace to welding temperature, 
taken out and passed through the welding rolls. 

Weights and Dimensions of Wrought Pipe. — 

Most iron pipe used for drainage systems and for 
water supply are subjected to additional stresses 
besides those due to internal pressure. They 
sometimes sustain great crushing strains, due to 
weight of parts of the structure in which they are 
built, which, by slightly settling, press on all the 
branches connected with the system. To with- 
stand all possible pressures and stresses to which 
they might be subjected, wrought pipes are made 
in three weights— standard, extra strong and 
double extra strong, only the first of which is 

11 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems ^ 



< z 

H 2 

1/1 

z 



Num- 
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threads 
per 

inch of 
screw 


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CJ»-tTHrHr-iT-ii-iT-lT-l 




Nomi- 
nal 

weight 
per 
foot 


Pounds 

.241 

.42 

.559 

.837 

1.115 

1.668 

2.244 

2.678 

3.609 

5.739 

7.536 

9.001 

10.665 

12.49 

14.502 

18.762 

23.271 

28.177 

33.701 

40.065 

45.028 

48.985 

53.921 

57.893 

62. 






Length* 
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Ji C- OS CO N t- •<* 

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i-H t- eq «5 Tf 00 OS 50 OS i> o -^ t- t- c- rH oo eg oo co (M o c- lo eo oj ■<J< to 

. O r^ rH eg CO -^ to t^; O t> N to T-( CO CO lO OS CO O CJ3 Ti; lO O (N O l> CO 






Sq. In. 

.0573 
.1041 
.1917 
.3048 
.5333 
.8626 
1.496 
2.038 
3.356 
4.784 
7.388 
9.887 
12.73 
15.9C1 
19.99 
28.888 
S8.7S8 
50.04 
62.73 
78.829 
95.033 
113.098 
137.887 
159,485 
187.04 
211.24 
235.61 




Sq. In. 

.129 

.229 

.358 

.554 

.866 

1.358 

2.164 

2.835 

4.43 

6.492 

9.621 

12.566 

15.904 

19.635 

24.306 

34.472 

45.664 

58.426 

72.76 

90.763 

108.434 

127.677 

153.938 

176.715 

201.06 

226.98 

254.47 


i 

3 

b 




•g 00>-;iOOSlOCgcOO-*t-;tOrHtOi-;000000'*U3t-;tOt--0;iO-^ 

a '>-ir-irHc<ico-^idtDt^osirH'cg'-^iffloscg'»oodi-<^t-^.-;-<j!odr-;-* 

1^ i-l r-l .H .-1 iH (N eg eg CO CO CO -fl" -^ "W U3 U5 




|?2ggg;§sSSgS^g^g^Sl§S?§g3;2!l§SSto^io 

■§ M CO r^ to N iH eq o Tj< o OS in r-; t-; Ti> 00 OS o (N c-_ OS o OS i-< eg_ ■«i; "3 
e r-it-<eqNcOTjiidifflt-'osdegT)!u3i>dmt>dco"eddcot-^dcocd 
^^ iH i-i i-i iH iH eq N eg CO CO CO tl" ■»!' ■* u5 lo lo 




m 


,C CO 00 OS o iH CO -^ -^ lo o 1-t eg CO --ti^ lo CO o eg Tf CD 

o oooi-i.H.HTHiHiHcgegegegegegegcocoeoco 








1 


"3 i 


2 t- CO OS eg eg ■* 00 i-i to CO CO ■* eg o tc CO eg 00 CO rH lOioeo e<i 
.aegco-sfcoooococoo^oiooiooooosojo _ _egogTi<-^co 
^ ■ * * ' 'r-ir-it-iegi>aeoco-5i'-q<idtoi>t~o6ojHeg'cg^io-cDt|- 


III 


S 0-* t--*m,-ico t-t- CD eg eg eg eg lO U5 lO 

'g "^ l^ to 00 O CO CO OS CO 00 lO ^lO ^ lO to CO to CD t^ t^ t^ 

a ' ' ' - i-i r-i r-i r-i eg eg CO -^ -^ id id CO t-^ 00 OS d i-< eg •<* id to t> 00 

^ r-l i-l t-4 t-t 1-1 i-H 1-1 rt 




m 

^ Nj^N^xeONt^^v^ ^^\ ^ ^^ ^^ 
P3 iH rH tH iH 1-i T-l iH iH 



12 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



Nominal 
Weight 

per 
Foot of 
Length 


Pounds 

.29 

.54 

.74 

1.09 

1.53 • 

2.17 

3.00 

3.63 

5.02 

7.67 

10.25 

12.47 

14.97 

17.60 

20.54 

28.58 

37.60 

47.85 


External 
Area 


o (N (M in m com en CO M OS (M to o CO o t- CO c<! 

g rH C<1 CO in 00 CO .-( 00 ^ ^ «5 in Ol CD C<0 ^ CO ^ 


t-H T-H c^ oi ^ CO ai cv] in OS ^' 'TjH Lo CO 

, rH T— 1 1— ( C^ CO -^ in 

a" 
W 


Is 


nches 

03 
06 
13 
23 
45 
71 
27 
75 
93 
20 
56 
85 
44 
18 
19 
93 
47 
13 


I—* r-li-l(M^ COOO ^ ^ 00 in ^ ^ 

T-t T-i T-H C^ CO 'i* 

c ■ • 


Length of 
Pipe per 
Square 
Foot of 
Outside 
Surface 


Feet 

9.43 

7.07 

5.65 

4.54 

3.63 

2.90 

2.30 

2.01 

1.60 

1.32 

1.. 

.95 

.84 

.76 

.68 

.57 

.50 

.44 


Length of 
Pipe per 
Square 
Foot of 
Inside 
Surface 


Feet 

18.63 

12.98 

9.07 

7.04 

5.10 

4.01 

3.00 

2.55 

1.97 

1.64 

1.32 

1.13 

1.00 

.90 

.79 

.66 

.58 

.51 




Inches 

1.27 

1.69 

2.12 

2.63 

3.29 

4.13 

5.21 

5.96 

7.46 

9.03 

10.99 

12.56 

14.13 

15.71 

17.47 

20.81 

23.95 

27.10 




Inches 

.64 

.92 

1.32 

1.70 

2.31 

2.98 

3.99 

4.69 

6.07 

7.27 

9.08 

10.54 

11.99 

13.35 

15.12 

18.06 

20.81 

23.56 


|i 


s 

JS O(M(M'#in000>O(M00O(NT)iint-C0OtD 

u 1-H rH rH ■-; ,-; rH I-; N eq N CO CO CO CO CO ■* in in 


111 

<8i 


2 O -* C- ^ in T-l CD t- t-OOOOCO!M<MIM 

.« T3< m CO 00 o CO CO osco 00 in oin o in CO CO CO 


(3 rHT-;r-i,-;c<iiNcoTii^'inincdt.^oo' 


Actual 

Inside 

Diameter 

Inches 

.20 

.29 

.42 

.54 

.73 

.95 
1.27 
1.49 
1.93 
2.31 
2.89 
3.35 
3.81 
4.25 
4.81 
5.75 
6.62 
7.50 


Nominal 

Inside 
Diameter 


g tH iH iH W <M CO CO -^ -^ iri CD t- 00 



13 



»\ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 

commonly used for drainage systems, although in 
very tall buildings extra strong pipe is n o w 
frequently used. Wrought iron and steel pipes 
are made according to the same standards. 

The sizes and dimensions of standard-weight 
wrought pipe can be found in Table I. 

Extra Strong Wrought Pipe.— The outside 
dimensions of extra strong pipe are the same as 
for corresponding sizes of standard weight pipe. 
The outside dimensions of the several weights of 
each size of pipe are made the same size's, so that 
stock fittings will fit all sizes of weights of pipe, 
and so one set of dies can thread the several 
weights of pipe. As the outside dimensions of 
standard and extra heavy pipes are the same, and 
the walls of the extra strong pipe are thicker, the 
bore of extra strong pipe is smaller, and this reduc- 
tion in size should be taken into account when pipe 
of a certain diameter is required. Extra strong 
pipe is always shipped without threads or coup- 
lings, unless otherwise ordered. The weights and 
dimensions of extra strong wrought pipe can be 
found in Table II. 

Double Extra Strong Wrought Pipe.— Double 
extra strong pipe, like extra strong pipe, differs 
from standard wrought pipe only in having thicker 
walls and a smaller bore. Double extra strong 
pipe is seldom used in drainage systems, but finds 
its most extensive apphcation in high-pressure 
steam work, large hydraulic plants and refrigerator 
plants. Double extra strong pipe is shipped with- 
out threads or couplings, unless otherwise ordered. 

14 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 





■S "tt-a 


c 

■fi 






o 
'A 


> PmJ 








Cli 




C e3 




h 0> 








t^<i 




H 



S a J? o D 3 



g* g, W O C " 






C S o 

IH 3 C 

<a t> "i 



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III 



jooooirscooooou^oo'^cj 



i-Hi-HMfMCOCOlO^Dt 



y o if3 <xnrs «£) CO CO OS <M <:o O '^ O t— CD CO 



1 i-H i-l CM CO -<t W3 



U ^ T# CO t- i-f CO ■^ r-( O^ 05 OJ to <0 CD 00 C^ 



OJ mrJ<CO 00r-40(M CTSlrt '^ toco t- O '^ 
^ t£5 lO to Oi CO O to CO O C5 00 C- CO litt lO -^ 
^ lOTTcOC^C^tM'^T-it-i 



C^tD'tjiOT-Hi-lCOt-t-O'-'iO^COtMtO 

— - HtD'^tMOOitr-tDiO 



5i (M CO OS CO tH to ?0 CO O) to C 



Si CO to ca -^ CO 1-1 00 i-H t- CO "f o to T-t '^ o 

.« t-t-COOOt-'^tDlOi-HiOOOC<It-;COOcO 

5h * ' i-i i-i oj CO -^ La t- 00 as »-H c<i lA ai 1-H 



rj N Oi i-I to 00 O "^ to O '^ 00 C4 U5 t- -<# t- 

u c^i(M CO CO CO '^ '<3' in to to to t- 1- 00 00 00 



t-'^iOT-ttO tr-t-OOOOtOMCgw 



CO-<#N00 00 00O5ia00i-tC0COtDt-tOt^ 
C<lW^lC00O-<*t-;Cv]t-r-llOO00O00 

'r-ii-Ii-lwodcocd'^'^'tdto 



THiH^C^tMCOCO'^Tj'lLfDtOt-OO 



15 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



The weights and dimensions of double extra 
strong pipe can be found in Table III. 

Merchant and Full- Weight Wrought Pipes.— 

In addition to the classification of pipe as standard, 
extra strong and double extra strong, there is a 
distinction made among manufacturers and dealers 
between pipes which run within 5 per cent, of 
specified weights and those which fall below the 
5 per cent, limit. Pipes which are within 5 per 
cent, of card weights are known as full weight 
pipe, while pipes that fall below the 5 per cent, 
limit are known as merchant pipe. There is no 
difference between the grades of material used for 
the different classes of pipe, and so far as the full 
weight and merchant pipes are concerned, they 
are subjected to the same tests and receive equal 
care and inspection as to welding and material. 
Merchant pipe is from 2 to 3 per cent, lighter than 
full weight pipe and for most uses is sufficiently 
strong. When, however, the maximum weight and 
strength is required, full weight pipe should be 
specified. 

Wrought pipes are made in random lengths of 
from 12 to 20 feet, with 17 feet perhaps as a fair 
average. The smaller pipes, that is those from 4 
inch to 1 inch in diameter, are tied up in bundles 
for shipment, while larger sizes are shipped loose. 
Very large pipes have their threads protected dur- 
ing shipment by screwing half couplings on the 
ends. 



16 




WORKING WROUGHT PIPE 



JOINTS FOR WROUGHT PIPE 




UTTING PIFE.-Small wrought 
pipes, ranging in size from g-inch to 4 
inches in diameter, are usually cut on 
operations with a hand pipe-cutter. 
Pipes of larger size and sometimes 
small pipes of 2 inches in diameter and upward are 
cut with a cutting attachment to a pipe -threading 
machine. There are two principal types of hand 
pipe-cutters commonly used. They are respectively 
known as wheel-and-roller cutters, and three-wheel 
cutters. In the wheel-and-roller cutter, Fig. 3, the 





Fig. 3 
Wheel-and-Roller Pipe Cutter 

cutting is done by the cutting wheel, a, while the 
rollers, b, serve only to reduce the friction of the 
cutter on the pipe, and thus make the cutter more 
easy to operate. With this type of cutter, the 

17 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



wheel must be revolved completely around the pipe 
and the stem screwed down at each turn, until the 
pipe is cut off. 

The three-wheel cutter, Fig. 4, differs from a 
wheel-and-roller cutter principally in having two 
cutting wheels, a, replace the two rollers in the 
wheel-and-roller cutter. This change reduces the 
friction of the cutter on the pipe, thereby making 
it easier to operate, makes less of a burr inside of 
the pipe, and permits a pipe being cut off by 
moving the handle backward and forward only 
about one-quarter turn. Each type of cutter has 
its own particular field of usefulness and is best 
suited for certain kinds of work. For general all- 




Fig. 4 

Three- Wheel Pipe Cutter 

around work at the bench, the wheel-and-roller 
type is best fitted. It is stronger, will wear longer 
and cut truer under the rough usage incident to 
such service. On the other hand, a three-wheel 
cutter is invaluable when cutting out a line of pipe, 
that already is in place, close to a wall or ceiling; 
owing to the limited swing the handle requires, it 
will have room to spare when cutting a pipe where 
a wheel-and-roller cutter could not be used. When 
operating a cutter, the wheel should be screwed 
gently down, the cutting wheel well oiled and the 
handle revolved. With proper usage a cutter will 
last for years and always cut true. However, most 

18 



^ 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



fitters and helpers screw down the wheel as tight 
as they conveniently can before revolving the 
handle. That is a bad practice. It not only breaks 
the cutter and strains the rollers so the cutting 
wheel will not run true, but it also forms a deep 
burr on the inside of the pipe, which, unless 
removed, partially chokes the pipe and considerably 
reduces its capacity. 

Reaming Iron Pipe.— On all drainage work, 
the burr formed on the inside of a pipe by the 
process of cutting must be removed, or an imper- 
fect junction at the joint will result. The rough 
edges presented by the burrs will catch and hold 
anything of a fibrous nature coming in contact with 
them, and in course of time the horizontal portions 
of pipe might become completely 
choked. The burr should also be re- 
moved from the pipes that are to be 
used for ventilation purposes or for 
water supply, otherwise larger sizes of 
pipes should be used to compensate 
for the loss of capacity due to the 
burrs. A convenient tool for reaming 
the ends of pipes is shown in Fig. 5. 

It is known as 

a skeleton 
reamer. By 
placing the left 
hand on the 
plate a and 
pressing the cutting end into the opening of a pipe, 
while working the ratchet handle back and forth 
with the right hand, the burr is quickly removed. 

19 




Fig. 5 
Pipe Reamer 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



Standard Pipe Threads.— Wrought pipes are 
joined together by means of screw threads. The 
Briggs thread, which differs in coarseness accord- 
ing to the size of pipe, is the standard adopted by 
the pipe manufacturers* association, and is now 
generally cut on pipes and tapped in fittings. The 
number of threads per inch for any size of pipe 
can be found in the last column of Table I. 




Fig. 6 
Perfect 2H-inch thread 

Screw threads are classified as male threads 
and female threads. Male threads are those which 
are cut on the outside of a pipe or fitting and screw 
into a corresponding thread inside of a coupling 
valve or fitting. Female threads are tapped on the 
inside of couplings, valves and fittings, and screw 
onto male threads. It takes both a male and a 
female thread to make a screw joint. 

20 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



A perfect thread on 22-inch pipe is shown, 
slightly reduced, in Fig. 6. The threads have 
angles of 60 degrees and are slightly rounded off 
at their tops and bottoms so that the height, or 
depth of thread, instead of being exactly equal to 
the pitch X cosine of 30 degrees (pitch x 0.866) is 
only four-fifths of it, or equal to 0.8 1/n if n. be the 
number of threads per inch. The screw has about 
six full or perfect threads, a, and two threads, h, 




Fig. 7 
Male and Female Threads United 



that are full at the root, or bottom, but imperfect 
at the top. The balance of the threads, c, are not 
essential to the screw but are simply imperfections 
incidental to cutting the thread at a single opera- 
tion. Pipe threads taper 1 inch in 32 inches to the 
axis of the tube, as shown by the way the threads 
pitch from the dotted lines, d, d, which are parrallel 
to the sides of the pipe; hence, when a thread is 

21 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 

cut to the full depth at a, the top of threads, c are 
bound to be more or less flattened and imperfect. 
Female threads in valves and fittings are 
tapped with the same degree of taper as male 
threads on pipe ends, but taper in the opposite 
direction, so that when a pipe thread is entered in 
a fitting the two threads fit together very loosely 
and are easily entered. As the fitting is screwed 
on, however, the threads tighten uniformly along 
the entire engaging surface until a perfectly tight 
metal-to-metal joint is secured. Such a joint is 
shown in Fig. 7. 




Fig. 8 
Pipe Thread Gauges 

Pipe Thread Gauges.— Although there is such 
a thing as a Standard Thread, namely Briggs, even 
amongst the large manufacturers there appears to 
be mighty little knowledge of what the standard 
sizes really are. It is a matter of common observa- 
tion that fittings from different factories are tapped 
differently. Some are large and some are small, 

22 






Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



especially noticeable in the large sizes; and in 
making up work with either screwed fittings or 
flanges it is to a large extent necessary to cut and 
fit in order to make perfect joints to accurate 
measurements. Irregularity in the small sizes of 
nipples and malleable fittings for gas and water 
services is so common as to scarcely cause any 
comment. It will happen frequently that nipples 
will enter fittings only a turn or a half a turn. 
The manufacturer of the fitting will maintain that 
his tapping is standard, and the manufacturer of 
the nipple will declare with equal positiveness that 
his threading is to gauge. The only way for the 
contractor to satisfy himself on the point is to 
either measure and caliper the threads to pipe and 
fittings, or measure them by means of Briggs 
standard pipe thread gauges, as shown in Fig. 8. 
These gauges consist of a plug and a ring. On the 
plug a surface is ground which indicates the depth 
to which the plug should enter a fitting, to allow 
for screwing up with tongs to make a tight joint. 
When the plug is screwed into the ring, the top 
surface of the two are flush. 

Flat Threads.— An imperfect thread, due to a 
slight flattening of the pipe at the weld, is some- 
times cut on a pipe. While the aim should be to 
have perfect threads on all pipes, still threads need 
not be rejected on account of slight flatness or 
broken threads. The raised part of a male thread, 
which fits into the depressed part of a female 
thread, plays only a proportional part in making a 
joint tight. The raised part of the female thread 

23 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



which fits the depressed part of the male thread is 
the other factor in makinga tight joint, and, unless 
the whole raised part of either a male or female 
thread is flattened or broken so that water can 
traverse the circumference of the pipe as many 
times as there are threads, the joint can be made 
perfectly water tight and will remain so under high 
pressure. Another cause of apprehension is the 
small V-shaped grooves that sometimes occur in 
threads, due to the weld not finishing perfectly 
smooth and circular outside. Such a defect in a 
thread is not necessarily serious, unless the groove 
is so deep that it extends below, the bottom of the 
thread. 

Cutting Pipe Threads.— Pipe threads are cut 
with dies which may be operated either by hand 
or by machine. Small sizes of pipe are usually cut 
with hand stocks, which may be fitted with solid 




Fig. 9 
Armstrong' Stock and Dies 

or with adjustable dies. Armstrong stocks with 
adjustable dies, Fig. 9, are more convenient and 
by far more accurate than block dies for general 
work. The dies may be adjusted to cut a shallow 
or a deep thread to fit the tapping of each lot of 
fittings, and the dies being firmly attached to the 
stocks permit no movement or shifting to cause 
the cutting of imperfect threads. 

24 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



Fig-. 10 
Tin Brushing- for Stock Guide 



Supplemental Guides for Stocks.— The guides 
for all makes of stocks are sufficiently loose to 
easily slip over any 
weight of pipe, 
whether galvanized, 
plain or tar coated. 
Hence, when cutt- 
ing standard pipe, 
particularly if the 
pipe is slightly under 
size, the guide is so 
loose that the result- 
ing play usually pro- 
duces a slightly crooked thread. This can be pre- 
vented by making supplemental guides of different 
weights of tin, as shown in Fig. 10, to take up the 
play between the regular stock guide and the pipe. 

Cutting Threads to Fit Tappings.— Threads 
on pipes should be cut so that when screwed into 
fittings no portion of the threads will be exposed. 
This requirement is particularly important for gal- 
vanized pipes. When a thread is cut on galvanized 
pipe, the galvanizing is cut through and removed; 
this leaves an exposed spot, thinner than the aver- 
age thickness of pipe, which, being bright, will 
more easily corrode; furthermore, in exposed work 
the installation looks better when the threads are 
concealed. 

When threading pipe with adjustable dies, by 
properly setting the dies the threads can be cut so 
that when screwed into a fitting no portion of the 
thread will be exposed. With solid dies conditions 

25 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



are different; they cut a certain depth of thread, 
and cannot be adjusted to cut a deeper or a more 
shallow one. By the exercise of a little care, how- 
ever, as deep and uniform threads can be cut with 

a solid die as with adjus- 




Fig. 11 

Die Attachment for Cutting 

Deep Threads 



table ones. This is ac- 
complished by placing a 
piece of tin of the 
required thickness, as 
shown at a, Fig. 11, over 
one set of teeth in the die 
and then cutting a thread 
on the pipe; or the same 
result can be obtained by first cutting an ordinary 
thread on the pipe and then running the thread 
over with a die on which a piece of tin has been 
placed, as shown in the illustration. This method 
of cutting deep threads with solid dies is generally 
used by experienced fitters when working brass 
and nickel-plated pipe, so that no thread will be 
exposed when the fittings are made up. 

Right-Hand and Left-Hand Threads.— Pipe 

threads, either male or female, can be cut either 
right-handed or left-handed. Right-hand threads 
are the kind commonly used, and unless otherwise 
ordered are cut on the ends of stock pipe and 
tapped in stock fittings, while left-hand threads 
are unusual, being cut when wanted on the ends of 
pipes, and tapped in special stock couplings and 
elbows which are used for connecting together two 
pipes that come together from different directions. 
Fittings are screwed on right-hand threads by 

26 



»S Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems (/[-liy 

turning the fitting" to the right. They are screwed 
on left-hand threads by turning the fittings to the 
left. The female threads in fittings must corres- 
pond with the male threads on pipes, or else they 
cannot be connected; for instance, a right-hand 
thread in a fitting will screw on a right-hand thread 
on a pipe, while a left-hand thread in a fitting is 
required to screw on a left-hand thread on a pipe. 
A right-hand thread in a fitting will not screw on 
a left-hand thread on a pipe. Nor will a left-hand 
thread in a fitting screw on a right-hand thread. 
Right and left hand couplings and elbows are not 
made in sizes larger than 2 inches, consequently 
left hand threads larger than 2 inches are not re- 
quired on pipe ends. Right and left threads are 
not made for large sizes of pipe owing to the great 
frictional resistance encountered when two sets of 
threads are being screwed together at the same 
time. The resistance offered is largely due to the 
great amount of engaging surface in contact, and 
to slight crookedness of the threads which neces- 
sitates a certain "giving" of the pipes which are 
being screwed together. The resistance offered 
by a large right-and-left coupling when being 
made up calls for such large tongs or wrenches, 
and imposes such great torsional stresses on the 
pipe and coupling, that in practice large right-and- 
left connections have been found unsatisfactory, 
and some other form of coupling, either a union or 
flange joint, is used. 

Cutting Crooked Threads.— As a rule, too 
great care cannot be exercised when threading 
iron pipe, to see that the threads are cut straight. 

27 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



A deviation of but a slight fraction of an inch, 
when cutting a thread on a pipe several feet long, 
will cause a variation of the pipe from its align- 
ment of from J-inch to 2 inches. There are condi- 
tions, however, under which 
crooked threads not only are 
permissible but are actually 
desirable. When a fitting is not 
tapped true, or when it faces a 
little off line, the pipe can be 
brought to a true alignment by 
cutting a crooked thread on the 
end of the 
pipe that 
screws into 
the fitting. 
To do this, 
it is only 
necessary 
to remove 
the guide from the stock and re- 
place it with another guide from 
one to two sizes larger, according 
to the amount of crook wanted 
on the thread; then, while the 
thread is being cut, hold the 
stock so that the guide will press 
against one side of the pipe; this 
will cause the die to engage the 
pipe at a slight angle, as shown 
in Fig. 12. A crooked thread is shown in Fig. 13. 
By cutting a crooked thread on each end of a piece 
of pipe, each thread crooking in opposite direc- 

28 




Fig. 12 

Method of Cutting 

Crooked Threads 



J^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /# 



tions, a slight offset can be effected, as shown in 
the illustration. A greater degree of crookedness 
is shown in this illustration than would be permis- 
sible in practice, as sufficient metal would not be 




Fig. 13 
Crooked Threads Forming- Offset in Pipe 

left at the point a to give the desired length of life 
to the pipe. The amount of crook in this case is 
exaggerated to make clear the meaning. 

Gutting Nipples.— Nipples are short pieces of 
pipe from 1 inch to about 6 inches long, threaded 
on both ends. Small sizes of pipe, six inches and 
longer, can easily be held in a vise while being cut 
and threaded. With short nipples, however, it is 
different; a special devise called a nipple-chuck, 
Fig. 14, being required to hold them. An ordinary 




Fig. 14 
Nipple Chuck 

nipple-chuck is simply a short piece of iron pipe on 
which a running thread, that is, a screw thread 
three or more inches long, is cut; on this thread is 
screwed a coupling to within about |-inch of the 

29 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



end. The nipple to be threaded, on one c^d of 
which a thread has already been cut, is screwed 
into the coupling until the end of the nipple jams 
against the end of the pipe forming the nipple- 
chuck; that holds the nipple firmly in place while 
the thread is being cut. If the nipple is so short 
that the guide strikes the coupling before the die 
reaches the nipple, the guide should be removed 
and a larger size substituted that will shp over the 
coupling. If, however, the nipple is a close one, 
the guide can be placed on the nipple-chuck back 
of the coupling. After a nipple is threaded and 
the fitting screwed on, it can be removed from the 
chuck, by hand, after first loosening the coupling 
with a wrench. 




30 




CHAPTER III 




PIPE GUTTING AND 
THREADING TOOLS 




ENERAL Requirements of Fitters' 

Tools.— The importance, both to jour- 
neyman and contractor, of having 
^'^' plenty of the very best tools that 
money can buy or skill produce, can- 
not be overestimated, w^hen it is considered that 
much time is wasted, on large operations, by not 
having a sufficient number of benches, vises, 
stocks, dies and cutters, or by having tools which 
are so worn, dulled or poorly designed and con- 
structed, that men who use them cannot work to the 
best advantage; and that with poor or insufficient 
tools, from two to four times as much time is re- 
quired to perform a certain piece of work as would 
be required with a sufficiency of good tools. On 
large operations where a number of workmen are 
employed installing iron pipe, it is a matter of 
economy to provide one bench and set of cutting 
and threading tools for each two journeymen. 

The benches should be well made, strong, con- 
veniently situated in a well-lighted place, and 
securely fastened to the floor or ceiling so they 

31 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /? 



cannot be easily moved from their positions. , It is 
better, where possible, to secure the benches to the 
floor, as this method of securing them gives a clear 
deck space to the benches. A very good bench 
that can be "knocked down" for shipment from 
place to place can be made by any fitter from iron 
pipe, with a few flanges and other fittings. A view 
of such a bench is shown in Fig. 15. The top of 
the bench should be made of hard pine, maple, oak 
cr other firm wood, to withstand the rough usage 




Fig. 15 
Pipe Fitters' Bench 



it will receive, and an adjustable bending bar, a, 
will be found a convenient attachment for bending 
small sizes of pipe, as well as forming a rest for 
holding stocks and dies when not in use. On the 
under side of the bench-boards, hooks may be 
screwed in to hold the dies and guides when not in 
the stocks; and, it might seem needless to remark, 
that the dies and guides should be wiped with cot- 
ton waste when removed from the stocks to keep 
them from becoming gummed with oil and dirt. 

32 



<]5^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



Pipe Vises.— For holding- pipe at a bench, 
while cutting and threading, hinged vises, Fig. 16, 

will be found by far 
the most convenient 
and the quickest to 
operate. The jaws are 
renewable and can be 
replaced at any time 
they become damaged 
or they can be removed 
for sharpening- and re- 
pairs. This type of 
vise is made in two 
sizes. The smaller 
takes pipes up to 3 
inches in diameter, 
while the larger one. 
Fig. 17, will hold pipes 
from 25 to 8 inches in 
diameter. 




Fig. 16 
Small Hinged Vise, Open 




Forbes Pi p e - 

Threading Machine.— 
A pipe-threading 
machine that is opera- 
ted by hand power is 
shown in Fig. 18. This 
machine is provided 
with adjustable dies 
which may be so set as 
to cut a shallow or 
deep thread. The 
machine is light and 
portable, can be geared to run at different speeds, 

33 



Fig-. 17 
Large Hinged Vise, Closed 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /? 



and can be operated with such little power that 
with it one men c:.n easily cut and thread a 4-inch 
pipe. Machines of this type can be had that will 
cut threads on pipes up to 10 inches in diameter. 

However, smaller sizes 
that cut threads up to 4 
inches give the best ser- 
vice and are more exten- 
sively used than are the 
large sizes. 





Fig. 18 
Forbes Eand Pipe- 
Threading Machine 

Armstrong Pipe- 
Threading Machine.— 

An Armstrong pipe- 
threading machine, 
Fig. 19, can be run by 
hand or by power. It 
is built very strong and 
possesses sufficient 
strength to cut pipe many sizes larger than its 
rated capacity. It can be dstached from its ped- 
estal or stand and secured to a bench. Like the 
Forbes machine it has adjustable dies which per- 
mit any depth of thread being cut, and it is oper- 
ated so easily that with it one man can cut threads 
on large sizes of pipe, 4 inches or more in diameter. 

34 



Fig. 19 
Armstrong Hand Pipe- 
Threading Machine 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 

Both the Forbes and the Armstrong pipe-thread- 
ing machines, as in fact are most of the large 
power pipe cutting and threading machines, are 
equipped with self centering vise jaws, so that a 
pipe, when gripped ready for threading will be in 
perfect alignment and automatically centered with 
the die. 

Crane Pipe-Cutting and Threading Machine. 
—The Crane pipe-cutting and threading machine. 




Fig. 20 
Crane Power Pipe-Cutting Machine 

Fig. 20, is designed for long and severe service in 
a shop. It is not portable nor can it be operated 
by hand. The machine is equipped with stationary 
die-head and sliding spindle, universal gripping 
chuck, with three steel jaws actuated by cams 
driven by a worm and segment, automatic oil pump 
and reversing countershaft. Machines of this type 

35 



»^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems ^ 



can be operated by any kind of power and are 
made in size to cut inclusively from 1-inch to 6-inch 
pipes, which is large enough for the average shop. 
Larger machines which will cut and thread pipes 
up to 18 inches in diameter maj likewise be had. 
When a firm has a large quantity of pipe annually 
to cut and thread it pays to have a power cutting 
and threading machine in the shop and an Arm- 
strong, Forbes or some equally good hand machine 
on a job. Power machines are fitted with cut-off 
attachments for cutting pipe. 

The pipe-threading machines enumerated and 
described in the foregoing paragraphs are illus- 
trated as types of different machines. There are 
other good machines on the market which give 
excellent service, among which may be mentioned 
the Duplex, Saunders, Bignall and Keeler, Borden 
and the Peerless. 

A power threading and cutting machine is a 
piece of mechanism that requires reasonable care 
to produce good results. It is as much a machine 
as a lathe or planer, and an equally good machine 
hand should have charge of a pipe-threading 
machine that would be put in charge of a lathe or 
planer. 

With a good man in charge of the machine, 
good results will be had with almost any good type 
of pipe-cutting and threading machine, for, after 
all, the results depend to a great extent on the 
condition in which the chasers are kept and in 
having them made with proper rake and relief in 
the first place. The particular machine used is a 
matter more of personal opinion; but no machine 

36 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



will cut clean threads unless due attention is paid 
to the chasers. 

Pipe-Threading Dies. — The proper shape of 
die is now an important consideration, since steel 
pipe has supplanted wrought-iron pipe. Formerly, 
when wrought iron pipe was exclusively used, the 
dies were so shaped and held in the stocks that the 
cutting edge, a, Fig. 21, engaged the tube on the 
center axis and parrallel to the diameter. This 




Fig. 21 
Old Form of Chaser 

shape of die had no relief at h, no rake, and scraped 
the metal away instead of cutting it when forming 
a thread; nevertheless, the dies were found satis- 
factory for the purpose, for wrought iron is com- 
paratively weak and so broken up with interspersed 
cinder that it is readily scraped out by such a tool. 
Bessemer steel, of the quality best adapted for 
pipe, however, is tougher and stronger than 

37 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /v 



wrought iron and cannot be cut so easily; hence 
the necessity for special dies for cutting steel 
pipes. It may be remarked, in passing, that while 
dies suitable for cutting wrought-iron pipe are not 
satisfactory for cutting steel pipe, dies which will 
cut steel pipe are equally satisfactory for cutting 
wrought-iron pipe. 

For cutting threads on steel pipe, the cutting 
point of the die must have sufficient front rake, and 




Fig. 22 
Correct Form of Chaser 

relief, to cut the metal out with a clean finish with- 
out waste of power, or unnecessary friction, simi- 
lar to the working of a lathe tool. This can be 
accomplished by advancing the cutting edge of the 
die about 17 degrees beyond the centre axis, or 
diameter, of the pipe, as shown at a in Fig. 22. 
The cutting edge will then form an acute angle 
that will cut and not scrape the metal from the 
pipe when a thread is being formed. The same 

38 



•v^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /* 



end may be obtained by grinding ordinary dies 
that are set on the center axis so the cutting 
edges, a, will have a rake of about 17 degrees, as 
shown in Fig. 23. The latter method is the simpler 




Fig. 23 
Correct Form of Chaser 



and less expensive one, and any workman that has 
access to an emery or carborundum wheel can, in 
a few minutes, change ordinary dies into steel- 




Fig. 24 

Armstrong' Dies, before and after grinding to correct form 

cutting dies without drawing the temper. 
Armstrong dies can be converted into steel pipe- 
cutting dies by grinding them to the shape shown 
in Fig. 24. 

39 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



In addition to possessing sufficient rake, a die 
should possess sufficient clearance so that chips of 
iron or steel from the pipe cannot interfere and 
clog the chaser, thus causing it to tear the thread. 
That is, the teeth should bear on the pipe only at 
the cutting edge, as shown at a in Fig. 25, and 
should be free from the pipe, as shown at h, so as 
to reduce the friction and prevent the tearing of 
threads by chips. 




Fig. 25 
Chaser Showing- Clearance 

As tensile strength of a metal is the resistance 
it offers to its fibres being torn apart, it follows 
as a natural consequence that steel pipe, which is 
the stronger and tougher of the two, is harder to 
thread than is wrought-iron pipe, which, having 
from 2 to 3 per cent, of cinder intermixed, is so 
weakened that no difficulty is experienced in 
scraping out a thread with the form of die com- 
monly used in practice. 

40 



;^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 

The force required to thread steel pipe, with 
the dies commonly used, is approximately 20 per 
cent, greater than the force required to thread 
equal sizes of wrought-iron pipe. For instance, to 
cut a thread with an ordinary die on a li-inch 
wrought-iron pipe requires a pull of from 83 to 87 
pounds on a stock arm 21 inches long, and to cut 
a thread on li-inch steel pipe with a similar die 
requires a pull of from 100 to 111 pounds on a 
stock arm 21 inches long. 

Under ordinary conditions, then, as they ob- 
tain in practice, it can be assumed that to thread 
steel pipe requires an expenditure of 20 per cent. 
more energy than is required to cut and thread 
wrought-iron pipe. This waste of energy, how- 
ever, can be reduced fo an amount too small to be 
considered by using dies of proper design. 

The best angle of shear for a die used for 
threading wrought-iron pipe is 12 degrees; for 
threading steel pipe, 20 degrees; and for thread- 
ing either wrought-iron or steel pipe, 17 degrees. 
With dies of 17 degrees shear, IJ-inch wrought- 
iron pipe can be cut by exerting a pull of from 58 
to 62 pounds on a stock handle 21 inches long, 
while with common dies a pull of 83 to 97 pounds 
would be required. 

The saving of energy when threading steel 
pipe with dies of approved rake and clearance is 
even greater than the saving of energy when 
threading wrought-iron pipe with dies of proper 
rake and clearance. For instance, li-inch steel 
pipe can be threaded with properly shaped dies by 
exerting a pull of from 60 to 65 pounds on a 21- 

41 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



inch die stock, while a pull of from 100 to 111 
pounds would be required to thread the same pipe 
with an ordinary die. It will be observed that a 
pull of only 2 pounds more is required to thread 
li-inch steel pipe than is required to thread an 
equal size of wrought-iron pipe with approved dies 
and that li-inch steel pipe can be threaded with 
approved dies with an expenditure of 23 pounds 
less energy than is required to thread wrought-iron 
pipe with ordinary dies. 

The greater force required to thread pipes 
with ordinary dies is due entirely to friction 
caused by the rubbing of the non-cutting part of 
the chaser, and to the lack of clearance for chips 
which become wedged between the pipe thread 
and the chaser, thus adding to the resistance. 

Nye Pipe-Threading Dies.— In the Nye dies 
clearance for chips is provided in a novel manner. 
By referring to illustration, 
Fig. 26, it will be seen that 
there is a full set of leading 
threads, back of which 
every other tooth is 
removed from the die, thus 
leaving a double space be- 
tween to reduce the friction, 
provide clearance for chips 
and room for oil. In addition to the clearance pro- 
vided by removing every other tooth further clear- 
ance is provided and the amount of friction is still 
further reduced by making the dies so that the 

42 




Fig. 26 



*N Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems Q 






teeth bear on the pipe only at their cutting edges, 
a, illustration Fig. 27. Clearance is shown at 6. 

Nye dies are further made according to cor- 
rect principles by having the chasers so set that 
the teeth cut on a tangent, 
thus making a shearing cut 
instead of scraping out the 
metal. On account of this 
latter method of construction 
Nye dies are particularly suit- 
able for threading steel pipe. 

Pipe of various sizes can 
be cut with Nye dies with an ^^^- ^^ 

expenditure of much less force than is required to 
cut equal sizes of pipe with ordinary dies. Nye 
dies are made for Armstrong stocks, also for solid 
block stocks. 

Oil for Thread-Gutting. — When cutting or 
threading pipes, oil must be freely used on the 
dies or cutter. The oil lubricates the teeth of dies, 
keeps them cool and seems to make the thread cut 
with a smoother finish. Economy in the purchase 
and use of oil is poor economy. The very best of 
oil should be used and in liberal quantities. When 
cutting and threading pipe with hand stocks the 
oil used is lost, but with machines, provision is 
made to catch the oil and use it over again. 

The best oil to use for cutting and threading 
pipe is lard oil; next to lard oil comes cottonseed 
oil. When working in an exposed place in cold 
weather, provision must be made to warm lard oil, 
which congeals at a comparatively high tempera- 
ture, and will not then flow. 

43 



»^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems ^ 



Care should be exercised by the fitter not to 
oil the end of a pipe before the die is well started 
so it cannot strip. For some reason, it seems much 
easier to start a thread when the pipe is free of oil 
than it is when the pipe is oily. 

Length of Pipe Threads. — The mistake is 
often made by fitters of cutting exceptionally long 
threads on the ends of pipes under the impression 
that the longer the threads the tighter will be the 
joints. This does not necessarily follow, however, 
for when long threads are cut they are harder to 
make up, and when once made up, part of the 
thread is useless, serving neither to strengthen the 
joint nor to make it tight. The reason for this is 
that long threads produce more friction than short 
ones when being screwed up, which heats the parts 
so they do not make up well together, and the 
irregularity of the surfaces of a number of threads 
in contact prevent the parts adjusting themselves 
to each other. Further, that portion of a pipe 
thread which extends through the die plate pos- 
sesses no taper and when screwed into an ordinary 
fitting is more than likely to extend beyond the 
threaded portion into the interior where it does no 
good. If used with recessed drainage fittings, on 
the other hand, the straight threads on the end of 
a pipe will prevent the taper threads further back 
from coming into use, and the result is very likely 
to be a leaky joint. There is a right proportion for 
pipe threads as well as for every thing else, and 
these proportions may be found in Table TV. 

44 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



> ^ 



pa fe 

^^ r-rl 



s 


At Bottom 

of Thread 

Inches 


.342 

.445 

.579 

.717 

.926 

1.162 

1.505 

1.745 

2.218 

2 646 

3.268 

3.765 

4.261 

4.758 

5.318 

6.373 

7.367 

8.361 

9.354 

10.472 


.Is 
II 


.393 

.522 

.656 

.816 

1.025 

1.283 

1.626 

1.866 

2.339 

2.819 

3.441 

3.938 

4.434 

4.931 

5.491 

6.546 

7.540 

8.534 

9.527 

10.645 


Number 

of 
Perfect 
Threads 


5.13 
5.22 
5.40 
5.46 
5.60 
5.87 
6.21 
6.33 
6.67 
7.12 
7.60 
8.00 
8.40 
8.80 
9.28 
10.08 
10.88 
11.68 
12.56 
13.44 


Length 

of 
Perfect 
Thread 
Inches 


T^ N CO CO ^_ U2 lO lO lO 00 m o O ,H iH eo CO -^ lO «3 


Number 

of 
Threads 
Per Inch 


c-oooo^^'^'^'^'^ooooooooooooooooooooco 

(Mr-lT-lr-lT-l>-li-lrHi-l 


m 

S 2 m 

go- 


OOOOT-IOCO^Oin^-^CDtDt-OOiOT-IIMIMtD 

coooaiO.-Hco^-<:j*u:)0^oaco^ioc»ocvi-^cD 

OOOi-(rtT-(.-l,-lr-IC<l<M(>a(MOa(Nl(MCOKlCOCO 


Actual 
Outside 
Diameter 
of Pipe 
Inches 


.405 

.540 

.675 

.840 

1.050 

1.315 

1.660 

1.900 

2.375 

2.875 

- 3.500 

4.000 

4.500 

5.000 

5.563 

6.C25 

7.625 

8.625 

9.625 

10.750 


Actual 
Inside 
Diameter 
of Pipe 
Inches 


.270 

.364 

.494 

.623 

.824 

1.048 

1.380 

1.610 

2.067 

2.468 

3.067 

3.548 

4.026 

4.508 

5.045 

6.065 

7.023 

7.9S2 

■9.000 

10.019 


5 « 

.St3 




'""'-'" ~" rn'rt'rtlM'NCOcb-^'^lO^Dt-OOOJO 



45 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems ^ 



A careful examination of the table will show 
that the number of threads for pipe less than 2 
inches in diameter, will average about six. This 
of course, refers to the perfect taper threads. In 
addition to the perfect threads, it will be remem- 
bered that there are a number of imperfect or 
leading threads which, while they might help some 
to make a strong joint, play but a very unimpor- 
tant part in making the joint tight. 

When cutting threads on pipe, all that is 
necessary is to run the die up on the pipe until the 
end projects about 1-16 inch through the die plate. 
Dies for the various sizes of pipe are so propor- 
tioned in thickness, that when the pipe projects 
through the die plate a perfect thread of the de- 
sired number of turns will be formed, and any 
further threading of the pipe will cut only a 
straight intapered thread. 

A better idea of the length of threads can be 
gained, perhaps, by an examination of the column 
headed "Length of Perfect Thread in Inches". It 
will be seen by reference to the column that the 
length of perfect thread on 2 inch pipe is but little 
over one-half inch, while the lengths gradually de- 
crease with the sizes of pipes so that on h inch- 
pipe the perfect thread is only .19 inch in length. 




46 




WROUGHT-PIPE FITTINGS 



VENTILATION FITTINGS 



YPES OF FITTINGS. -Ordinary 
^'"•^^ cast-iron or malleable-iron steam or 
water fittings are generally used for 
ventilation purposes. These fittings 
are made to stand a working pressure 
of 150 pounds per square inch, and will withstand 
a pressure of from 1,600 to 2,500 pounds per square 





Figr. 28 
Section Through Ordinary Pipe Fitting 

inch. Steam and water fittings, Fig. 28, are made 
with enlarged bodies which form pockets, the 

47 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 




thickness of the pipe, at a. These pockets increase 
the friction of fluids flowing through the fittings 
and would serve as numerous cesspools for the re- 
tention of sewage if used on 
drainage pipes. For these 
reasons they are permitted 
only in the vent system. 
Pipe fittings are made plain, 
beaded and in heavy pattern 
for steam and water piping. 
The plain and beaded fit- 
Fig. 29 

Section Through Plain Fitting 

tings are made of malleable 
iron and the heavy steam 
fittings are made of cast 
iron. 

Plain fittings are suit- 
able only for pipes subjec- 
ted to light pressure. The Fig. so 

metal of the fittings, as section Through Beaded Fitting 

may be seen in the illustra- 
tion. Fig. 29, is approxi- 
mately the same thickness 
throughout the entire cross 
section. 

Beaded fittings. Fig. 
30, on the other hand, have 
a reinforced bead of metal, 
a, around the outlets to 
Section Through Cast-iron Fitting strengthen the fittlngs so 

they will not be easily split when pipes are being 
screwed into place or when subjected to other 

48 





Fig. 31 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 




stresses. Cast-iron fittings, Fig. 31, have a rein- 
forcing ring, a, around each outlet, which gives 
them sufficient strength to withstand any ordinary- 
pressure to which they are 
subjected. 

Types of the several fit- 
tings generally used in vent 
systems are shown in the 
following illustrations. 
The fitting. Fig. 32, is a 
cross, and may be had with 
all the outlets one size or . 

with the dilTerent outlets Fig 32 

reduced t o whatever size cross Fitting 

desired. Fittings with only 
one size of outlet are known 
as straight fittings, while 
those with different sizes of 
outlets are known as reducing 
fittings. 
p;g. 33 AT fitting is shown in 

Tee Fitting Fig. 33. This fitting, like the 

cross, can be had with various 
sizes of outlets, or with the out- 
lets all one size. The fitting 
shown in Fig. 34 is a 90-degree 
bend, generally called an elbow. 
It may be had straight or reduc- 
ing. The 45-degree bend. Fig. 
35, is not made reducing but only 
with uniform size of outlets. A 
coupling is shown in Fig. 36. It 





right-and-left 
can be distin- 
guished from an ordinary pipe-coupling by the ribs 



49 



*\ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /# 



which run along its side. Right-and-left couplings 
are tapped with taper threads, the same as other 
fittings, and ordinary pipe couplings such as come 
with all lengths of pipe, are tapped with straight 
threads without taper. Special right hand coup- 





Fig. 35 

45-Degree Bend 



Fig. 36 
Kight-and-Left Coupling 



Fig. 37 
Right-and-Lef t Elbow 



lings, however, are made with taper threads, as 
are likewise couplings for pipe-line work. Right- 
and-left 90-degree bends, Fig. 37, are also made 
and may likewise be distinguished by short ribs on 
the end that contains the left thread. 





Fig. 
Close Nipple 



Fig. 39 
Shoulder Nipple 



A close nipple is shown in Fig. 38. A close 
nipple is just the length of two threads and has no 
unthreaded pipe between them. 

A shoulder nipple is shown by Fig. 39. This 
nipple has a short length of pipe between the 

50 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems Q 



threads. In drainage work both short nipples and 
shoulder nipples should be made of extra strong 
pipe, to compensate for the thickness of metal cut 
away in making the threads, and for the greater 
liability of corrosion where part of the thread is 
exposed. 

Nipples may be cut any length by the fitter, 
but stock nipples of certain sizes, only, can be had 
from supply houses although nipples of any size or 
weight can be had on special order. The stock 
sizes of plain and galvanized right-hand nipples 
carried by jobbers can be found in Table V. 







TABLE 


V 






STOCK SIZES OF RIGHT-HAND NIPPLES 


Size 
Inches 

1/8 


Length of Nipples in Inches 


Close 
Nipples 


Short 
Nipples 


Lone Nipples 


H 


11/2 


2 


21/2 


3 


3H 


1/4 


% 


11/2 


2 


21/2 


3 


31/2 


% 


1 


l'/2 


2 


2ii 


3 


^Vz 


"(2 


' 11/8 


11/2 


2 


21/2 


3 


3H 


% 


13/8 


2 


21/2 


3 


31/2 


4 


1 


11/2 


2 


21/2 


3 


3H 


4 


1% 


\% 


2H 


3 


3V'2 


4 


4H 


11/2 


XH 


21/2 


3 


312 


4 


41/2 


2 


2 


2^-2 


3 


31 2 


4 


4^2 


2V2 


21/2 


3 


3I/2 


4 


41/2 


5 


3 


2^2 


3 


31/2 


4 


41/2 


5 


3H 


23/4 


4 


41/2 


5 


51/2 


6 


4 


3 


4 


41/2 


5 


5I/2 


6 


4I/2 


3 


4 


4I/2 


5 


51/2 


6 


5 


314 


41/2 


5 


51 2 


6 


6I/2 


6 


314 


4I2 


5 


5J-2 


6 


6I/2 


7 


31/2 


5 










8 


3Ji 


5 











Right-and-left hand nipples are made in stock 
sizes up to 4 inches in diameter, but are seldom 
used over 2J inches in diameter. Stock sizes of 
right-and-left hand nipples can be found in Table 
VI. 

51 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



TABLE VI 
STOCK SIZES OF RIGHT-AND-LEFT HAND NIPPLES 





Length of Nipples in Inches 




Size 
Inches 






Close 1 Short 








Nipples ' Nipples 


Long Nipples 




h' 


H 


IV2 


2 


2V2 


3 


3V2 


1/4 


% 


l'/2 


2 


24 


3 


3H 


H 


1 


IH 


2 


2'/2 


3 


3H 


Vi 


iVs 


l'/2 


2 


2H 


3 


3'/2 


?4 


IH 


2 


2V2 


3 


3'i 


4 


1 


Wi 


2 


21/2 


3 


314 


4 


114 


1=4 


2H 


3 


SH 


4 


4'/2 


IH 


1^4 


2! '2 


3 


3'/2 


4 


41/2 


2 


2 


2'/2 


3 


31/2 


4 


4'/2 


2V2 


2H 


3 


3V2 


4 


4I/2 


5 


3 


2i'2 


3 


3ii 


4 


4'/2 


5 


3V2 


2^4 


4 


4'i 


5 


5'/2 


6 


4 


3 4 


4^2 


5 


5'2 


6 



The nipples listed in Tables V and VI may be 
had plain or galvanized, and in Standard, extra 
strong, and double extra strong weights. They 
are likewise carried in stock in lengths of 6, 7, 8, 9, 
10, 11 and 12 inches respectively for all sizes of pipe 
listed in the tables.. Nipples longer than 12 inches 
are not made. Above that length the pieces are 
treated as cut pipe, and are not classed as nipples. 
Flange unions, Fig. 40, are used to connect 
together two sections of pipe, 2 inches or larger in 
diameter, and are often used in place of right-and- 
left couplings to connect 
smaller pipes that have not 
sufficient end spring to per- 
mit the use of a right-and- 
left coupling. 

When used in drainage 
systems flange unions 
should be made up with 
metal gaskets between. For drainage work 
"Kewanee" flange unions are quite suitable. 

52 




Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 




require a 



A Kewanee union joint is shown in Fig. 41. 
This type of fitting is used to connect two pieces 
of pipe which are connected at their opposite ends. 
The thimbles, a and h, are 
screwed onto the two pipes 
which are to be connected 
and the two thimbles are 
then drawn together by 
means of the ring c; the 
union sho\\Ti in the illustra- 
tion is made tight by a 
metal-to-metal contact; 
some designs of unions, however, 
gasket to make the joint tight. 

Reading Fittings.— Fittings are knoTvn and 
read according to their outlets, always starting 
with the largest opening. For instance, if the out- 
let marked a on the cross, Fig. 32, were 2 inches; 
the outlet h, IJ inches; the outlet c, li inches, and 
the outlet d, 1 inch, the fitting w^ould be known 
and read as a 2xljxlixl cross. If there "were only 
two sizes of outlets to the cross, one size on the 
run {a to h) and one size on the branches (c to d) 
the cross would be read by those two sizes of out- 
lets. For instance, if in the run were 2 - i n c h 
outlets, and in the branches IJ-inch outlets, the 
fittings would be kno\\Ti as a 2xlJ-inch cross. 

The nm of a cross is always read first, regard- 
less of the size of the other outlets. For instance, 
if the cross outlets were 2 inch at a, IJ inch at h 
and IJ inch at c and d, starting with the large out- 
let the run would be read first and then the 
branches thus— 2xlixljxl2 cross. 

53 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



Other branch fittings, such as T, Y and TY 
fittings, are read in the same manner. First the 
run is read, and then the branch, regardless of the 
size of the side outlets. Usually the branch of a 
T fitting is smaller than the run, but a certain 
class of fittings known as bull-head tees have a 
larger branch outlet than the run. 

When mentioning such tees it is usual to state 
that they are bull headed. Thus, a tee with 1 inch 
run and 2 inch side outlet would be referred to as 
a lxlx2-inch bull headed tee. In reading tees it is 
customary among fitters to mention only two di- 
mensions when both outlets on the run are the 
same size. For instance, a tee having two li-inch 
outlets on the run and a 1-inch side outlet would 
be referred to as a IJxl-inch tee. 

Reducing ells are read by naming the larger 
outlet and then the smaller one. For instance, if 
a 90-degree bend had one 2-inch outlet and one IJ 
inch outlet it would be known as a 2xli-inch ell. 




54 




CHAPTER V 




RECESSED DRAINAGE FITTINGS 




tYPES of Drainage Fittings. -The dis- 
tinguishing feature of drainage fittings 
that makes them particularly suitable 
for drainage work is the recess in the 
hubs in which the female threads are 

tapped. This recess, which is shown at a a in 

Fig. 42, is made of just sufficient depth so that when 

a pipe is screwed into 

a fitting the inside of 

the pipe will finish 

flush with the inside of 

the fitting. Drainage 

fittings may be divided 

into three groups: 

traps, branches and 

bends. Fittings of the 

first group are shown 

in illustrations from Fig. 43 to Fig. 45 inclusive. 

Recessed Drainage Traps. — The fitting Fig. 
43 is a running trap and may be used as a main- 
drain trap, or as a leader, yard or area drain trap. 
The fitting Fig. 44 is a half-S trap with an outlet 
for back venting. It is used as a fixture trap, 

55 




Fig-. 42 

Section of Recessed 

Drainage Fitting 



[^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



2 



generally for a closet or slop sink. Fig. 45 is a 
three-quarter S trap, and is used like the half S 
trap in connection with fixtures. 




Fig. 43 
Running- Trap, Two Cleanouts 

Recessed Drainage Branches. — In the second 
group of fittings a Y branch is shown in Fig. 46. 
This fitting may be used in any position and on 
either a vertical or a horizontal line of pipe. It is 
one of the best types of branch fittings to use on 
horizontal drains, because it permits sewage to 
enter the main drain from the branch at such an 
angle as not to interrupt the flow of sewage in the 





Fig. 45 
Three-Quarter S Trap 

main. Y fittings are made both single and double 
pattern and with branch angles of 45 degree and of 
60 degree. A double Y branch is shown in Fig. 47. 

56 



|5^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems ^ 



The branch to both Y and double Y fittings may be 
had the same size as the run or with reduced out- 
lets. Three-way elbows are shown in Fig. 48. 




Fig. 47 
Double Y Branch 




Three-Way Elbow 



The smaller sizes of this type of fitting are used 
most frequently on vertical pipes as outlet fittings 
for sink or lavatory wastes. Larger sizes are made 
bull headed with reducing inlets on the run. 

A type of fitting that combines the easy junc- 
tion of a Y branch with the right angle facings of 
a T fitting is shown in Fig 49. This is the type of 




Fig. 49 


Fig. 50 


Fig. 51 


Short Sweep TY 


Long Turn TY 


TY Fitting with 


Fitting 


Fitting 


Side Outlets 



branch fitting most commonly used for fixture out- 
lets in drainage work. It is known as a short 
sweep TY fitting and may be had straight or with 

57 



!^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems Q 



reducing outlets. The fitting, Fig. 50, is also a 
TY but of a long turn pattern. On account of its 
easy sweeping curves it is the better suited for 





Fig. 52 

TY Fitting with Side Outlets 

and Vent Connection 



Fig. 53 

Double TY Fitting, 

Short Turn 



drainage work, and when space will permit it 
should be used. This pattern of fitting is generally 
used on horizontal drains. The short turn fittings, 
on the other hand, requiring less space, are gen- 
erally used for branch outlets on vertical soil and 
waste stacks, but seldom on horizontal drains. A 
convenient and sanitary type of branch fitting for 





Fig. 54 
Double TY Fitting, Long Turn 



Fig. 55 
T Fitting 



a bathroom outlet is shown in Fig. 51. This fitting 
is known as a TY with two side inlets. It provides 
separate connections for the three usual fixtures in 

58 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /5^ 



a bathroom, thus doing- away with the objection- 
able practice of connecting the bath tub and basin 
wastes to the lead closet bend. The fitting- shown 




Fig. 56 
Return Bend 




Fig-. 57 
Increaser 



at Fig. 52 is similar to the one just described, ex- 
cept that it has, in addition to the two side inlets, 
an extra opening on top of the closet branch, to be 
used as a back vent from the closet. In Fig. 53 is 
shown a double 
TY fitting of 
short turn pat- 
tern, for use on 
vertical stacks 
f s o i 1 and 
waste pipes. 
This fitting is 
particularly 
suitable for 
closets or other 
fixtures which 
are located on 
opposite sides 
of a wall. 

A double TY of long- turn pattern is shown in 
Fig. 54. Like the single pattern long-turn TY it 
is used principally on horizontal drains, although it 

59 




Fig. 59 
Roof Connection 



s 



y i I 

Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



is equally suitable for vertical stacks where space 
will permit its use. Common T fittings, Fig. 55, 
are used only on vent pipes and on horizontal 
drains for fresh air inlet connections. Return 
bends, Fig. 56, are used in drainage work only to 
cap fresh air inlets and other vent outlets. Hence 
they are made only in standard sizes from 2 to 5 
inches inclusive. Increases, Fig. 57, are made 
approximately 9 inches over all and in standard 
sizes from 2x3 inches to 7x8 inches diameters. 
Offsets are shown in Fig. 58. They are not made 
with greater offset than 12 inches. When larger 
offsets are required they must be made up with a 
piece of pipe and 45-degree, 60-degree or other 
bends. Roof connections are used for flashing 
pipes that pass through roofs. The manner of 
using them is clearly indicated in the illustration, 
Fig. 59, which shows a roof connection in place 
covering the flashing a on top of the roof. 

Recessed Drainage Bends. — Owing to the 
rigid joints to wrought-iron pipe, greater variety 
of bends must be used than are required for cast- 
iron soil pipe. The least angle made by a drain- 
age fitting is 5§ degree. The fitting that makes 
this bend is known as a 5|-degree elbow, and a 51- 
degree elbow turns a line of pipe but slightly from 
its original direction. Fittings of this type, like- 
wise lli-degree elbows, and 222-degree elbows, 
45-degree, 60-degree and 90-degree elbows, are 
shown comparatively in Fig. 60. All of these 
types of fittings are extensively used in drainage 
work, where they are required principally for off- 

60 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



J-i 



^ [ 



^^i 



setting lines or giving" to them a slight turn in the 
required direction. On ordinary work the only 

ntype of elbow outside of 90-degree bends 
which is extensively used is the 45-degree 
bend. These fittings are made long- turn 
and short-turn patterns. The short-turn 
fitting is shown in Fig. 61, and the long- 
turn fitting in Fig. 62. Long turn fit- 
tings are of greater 
radius than short turn 
bends and should be 
used wherever space 
will permit. Bends 
having angles of 60- 
degrees, Fig. 63, are 
also made, but are not 
so extensively used. 
Two patterns of 90- 
degree elbows are 
made: long turn 
elbows, Fig. 64, and 
short turn elbows. Fig. 
65. Like the long 45- 
degree bends, long 
turn 90-degree elbows 
are preferable, and 
should be used wher- 
ever space permits. 
Long turn 45-degree or 
90-degree bends will 
give to a pipe the same 
angle of pitch as would similar bends of short pat- 
tern. Long turn fittings differ from short turn 

61 




Fig. 60 

Comparative Angles 

of Bends 



%^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems ^ 



fittings only in the length of radius with which 
they are made, not in the degree of angle. The 
difference between long and short 45-degree bends 





Fig. 61 
Short-Turn 45° Bend 



Fig. 62 
Long-Turn 45° Bend 




Fig. 
Short-Turn 60° Bend 



is comparatively shown in Fig. 66, and the differ- 
ence between long and short 90-degree bends is 
shown in Fig. 67. 

Ordinarily, for offsetting pipes 45-degree bends 
are used. These and 45-degree Y fittings are 

staple stock 

and are favored 

because when 

used together 

they turn a pipe 

in almost any 
Fig. 64 direction. This Fis. es 

Long-Turn Elbow • a'Ufv-cTTn jy, Short-Turn Elbow 

Fig. 68, where the line of pipe, a, intersects the 
Y branch at an angle of 45 degrees while a 45- 
degree bend, 6, turns the branch parallel with the 
main line, or, as at c, turns the line at right angles 
to the main. If, instead of a 45-degree Y fitting, 
a 60-degree fitting were used, two different degrees 
of bends would have to be kept in stock to accom- 
plish what with a 45-degree Y fitting is done with 

62 





Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 




Fig. 6G 

Comparative Long-Turn and 

Short-Turn Bends 



a 45-degree bend. For instance, when a 60-degree 

Y branch is used a 30-degree bend will turn the 
branch at right angles to 
the main, but a 60-degree 
bend would be required to 
turn the branch parallel 
with the main. The same 
conditions hold true where 
bends other than 45 degrees 
are used to offset or change 
the direction of a pipe. If, 
for instance, a 30-degree 
bend be used to turn a line 
of pipe from its direction, 
another 30-degree bend will 
turn the pipe back to its 
original direction, thus 

forming an offset. If, how- 
ever, it is desired to turn 

the pipe at right angle, a 

60-degree bend in addition 

to the 30-degree bend must 

be used. In short, the sum 

of the two angles used must 

equal 90 degrees. 

Closet elbows. Fig. 69, 

flanged on one end to bolt a 

closet to, are made but are 

not used to any great extent 

in wrought-pipe drainage 

work. When they are used 

the joints between the closets and the flanges must 

be made tight with putty, paste, or gaskets of some 

63 




Fig. 67 

Comparative Long-Turn and 

Short-Turn Bends 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems Q 




Fig. 68 

Y Fitting and 

45° Bend 



kind, which is objectionable. Closet floor connec- 
tions, which are built on the ball and socket prin- 
ciple, and are adjustable and are made tight by 
means of a metal -to -metal 
contact, are now made for 
the same purpose and are so 
■^ much superior that they 
-^' should be used. These con- 
nections may be had for 
screw pipe. Fig. 70, or for 
lead pipe. Fig. 71. Both the 
iron pipe and the lead pipe 
connections are made in sizes suitable for 
3-inch and 4-inch pipe and may be used in 
connection with either iron or earthenware 
closets. Base elbows are shown in Fig. 
72. They may be had also as shown in Fig. 73, 
with one hub end for calking to cast iron pipe. 
Each of these patterns has a cleanout opening at 
the throat of the bend. 

Material and Coating of Drainage Fittings.— 

Drainage fittings are made of malleable iron and 
of cast iron. Cast iron drainage 
fittings are stock fittings and are 
generally used, while malleable iron 
fittings are made only to fill orders. 
Drainage fittings may be had plain, 
coated with asphaltum or galvan- Fig. eg 

ized. Some fittings are electro- ciosetEibow 
plated, which deposits on them a thin film of zinc. 
Such fittings are not coated inside, and are so thin- 
ly coated on the outside that the covering does not 

64 




W r o u g h t - P i p e D r a i n a ,y e Systems 




serve as a preservative and will not protect the 
fittings from corrosion. Electroplated fittings are 
generally sold as galvanized fittings, whereas they 
are but little bet- 
ter than plain fit- 
tings. For drain- 
age work both 
pipe and fittings 
should be coated 
inside and out 
with some good 
preservative. 
When asphaltum 
is used it should be applied while the pipe or fit- 
tings are hot. 

Tappings for Drainage Fittings. — Recessed 

drainage fittings 
of the TY and 90- 
degree bend pat- 
terns are tapped 
to give a fall of 
about 5 -inch per 
foot to pipes 
screwed into 
them. 



Fig. 70 

Ball-Joint Metal-to-Metal Closet Floor 

Connection— Iron Pipe 




Fig. 71 

Ball-Joint Metal-to-Metal Floor 

Connection— Lead Pipe 



For instance, 
a TY fitting, tap- 
ped to provide 
for fall, if laid in a drain at a grade of about i-inch 
per foot, with the branch turned upright, will give 

65 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /? 




Fig. 72 

Base Elbow, for 

Wrought Iron Pipe 



the branch a true perpendicular from the horizon- 
tal; and a 90-degree bend or TY fitting, tapped to 
allow for fall, if placed in a 
vertical line of pipe will give a 
fall of i-inch to the foot to the 
branches taken off that vertical 
line. If drainage fittings were 
not tapped in this manner, so as 
to allow for fall, the required 
pitch would have to be obtained 
either by slightly bending the 
pipe or by cutting crooked threads on one end of 
each branch pipe screwed 



into the fitting. 

Centre of Fittings.— 

In measuring piping it is 
necessary to know how to 
locate the center of fit- 
tings, for most pipe meas- 
urements are taken from 
the center of one fitting 
to the centre of another. The centers can be found 
by drawing imaginary straight 
lines from the centers of the sev- 
eral outlets of a fitting and at 
right angles to their faces; the 
point where all the lines intersect 
is the center of the fitting. This 
method of locating the centre of 
fittings will be better understood 
by a reference to the following 
In Fig. 74 a straight line a, drawn 




Fig. 73 

Base Elbow, for Cast Iron and 

Wrought Iron Pipe 




Fig. 74 
Center of Elbow 



illustrations. 

at right angles to one face of the 90-degree bend, 
• 66 



( ) Wrought-Pijie Drainage Systems ^ y"^ 




Fig. 75 
Center of 45° Bend 



and at the center of the outlet, would intersect the 

line h, drawn from the other outlet, at the point c, 

which is the center of the bend. In Fig. 75, the 

line a, drawn from the upper face of the 45-degree 

bend, and at right angles to it, would intersect the 

line 6, drawn from the opposite 

outlet, at the point c, which is 

the center of a 45-degree bend. 

The center of a fitting is really 

that point which would be the 

center of various pipes crossing 

at the angles of the openings. 

The center, c, of the T, Fig. 76, 

is found by drawing a line a, 

through the center of the run, 

and intersecting it, at right angles, by a line, 6, 

drawn from the center of the branch. 

For the purpose of finding their centers, TY 
fittings. Fig. 77, may be considered T's. A line, 

a, drawn through the 
center of the run would 
intersect the line 6, 
drawn at right angles 
from the. face of the 
branch, at c, which is 
the center of this fitting. 
In like manner the 
center of a double TY 
fitting. Fig. 78, would be found, at c, by drawing a 
Hne, a, through the center of the run and cutting 
it with a line, 6, drawn through the center of the 
branches. There are two conditions under which 
the center of Y branch fittings are to be found, 

67 



Fig. 76 
Center of T Fitting 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 




Fig. 77 
Center of TY Fitting 



each way depending upon the manner the fitting is 
to be used. When the fitting branch is to be con- 
tinued at an angle of 45 degrees from the main the 

center would be found as 
shown in Fig. 79. A line, 
a, drawn through the run 
would be intersected by 
the line b, drawn at right 
angles to the face of the 
branch. The point c, 
where the lines intersect, 
would be the center of 
the fitting. The centers 
of double Y fittings are 
found in the same man- 
ner. The line a, Fig. 80, is intersected by lines b 
and b, at the point c, which is the center of the 
fitting. When the branch of a Y fitting, by means 
of a bend, 
is to be 
turned at 
r i g h t 
angles to 
the main, 
as shown 
in Fig. 81, 
the short 
nipple and 
bend must 
be consid- 
ered part of the fitting and the center of the com- 
bination found. This is done as in the case of TY 
fittings by intersecting the line a, drawn through 

68 




Fig. 78 
Center of Double TY Fitting 



Wrought-Pipe Drain aije Systems 




Fig. 79 
Center of Y Fitting 



the run of the fitting, by the line b, drawn at right 
angles to the face of the branch at the point c, 
which is the center of the fitting. 

It is necessary for the 
workman to know the location 
of the center of fittings, or be 
able to determine it, for the 
reason that most pipe measure- 
ments are taken from the cen- 
ter of one fitting to the center 
of another, and in order to 
determine the exact length of 
pipe to be cut, allowance must 
be made for those portions of 
the measurements taken up by the fittings. Or- 
dinarily, after a little practice, the workman is 
able to judge the center of a fitting with his eyes, 
but if in doubt, he can make sure by placing his 
rule on the center of the various runs, and parallel 

with them, then mark- 
ing a chalk or pencil 
line along the rule, to 
where the several lines 
meet. He can then 
deduct for each fitting 
an amount equal to the 
length along the line 
he is working on, 
measured from the 
face to the shoulder in 
the hub of the fitting. The distance from the 
center of fitting to shoulder of hub, not to the face 
of hub is deducted, because the pipe will extend 

69 




Center of Double Y Fitting 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 

past the face of the hub, and make up clear to the 
shoulder within the recess. If however the re- 
cesses in the fittings are made deeper than would 

be required by 
an ordinary 
thread, that is, 
over 1.3 inches 
for 4-inch pipe, 
allowing for 8 
perfect threads 
and two full at 
the root but 
slightly flat- 
tened on top, 
then instead of 
allowing for 
the full depth 
of the hub, an 
allowance would simply be made of 1.3 inches, 
which is the length of a full and perfect 4-inch 
thread. 









} 


J 


a 

( 












Fig. 81 
Center of Y and 45° Bend 




70 



/f'^s'^lV'^Tli*^*^'''^*'''^'^^^^'^ 




BENDING WROUGHT PIPE 




' YPES of Pipe Bends.— In many classes 
of drainage work, particularly car and 
marine plumbing, pipe bends arfe ex- 
tensively used instead of cast-iron or 
malleable-iron fittings; hence the 
necessity for a knowledge of what size and kinds 
of bends can be made. For drainage work there 
are but three principal types of bends used. The 
first. Fig. 82, is a quarter bend and is the one 
which has to be made most frequently. The 
second, Fig. 83, is a return bend, and the third, 
Fig. 84, is an offset bend. 

Expansion bends. Fig. 85, are used in long 
lines of steam or hot water pipes to allow for ex- 
pansion and contraction. Expansion bends of this 
type may be made of copper or of iron. The one 
shown in the illustration is made of copper. If 
made of iron the radius would have to be much 
larger, as explained in Table VII. 

The advisable radius to which pipes can be 
bent bears a certain relation to the inside diameter 
and weight of the pipe. It may be stated, as a 
rule, that the advisable radius of a bend for stand- 

71 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 

ard pipe is six times the inside diameter of the 
pipe. That is, the advisable radius, r, Figs. 82, 83, 
84, for a 4-inch pipe would be 4x6—24 inches. 
There is a minimum and a maximum radius for 
pipe bends above or below which bends cannot con- 
veniently be made. If the radius must be reduced 




Fig. 82 
Quarter Bend in Pipe 



Fig. 83 
Return Bend in Pipe 



below the minimum a heavier weight of pipe 
should be used. On the other hand, if the radius 
is increased above the maximum the bend is apt to 
look like a series of kinks, owing to the short heats 

taken by the bender. 
~*1 j*— X -* Qalvanizing w rough t- 

iron pipe makes it brit- 
tle, which increases the 
difficulty of bending it; 
furthermore, heating 
galvanized pipe to 
bend it destroys the 
galvanizing; hence, galvanized pipe for drainage 
systems should be bent plain and galvanized after- 
ward. In bending pipe there is less liability of it 
opening along the seams if the weld is placed at 
the side, and it might be well to note that steel 

72 




Fig. 84 
Offset Bend in Pipe 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



pipe being softer than wrought-iron and having a 
stronger weld, is the better material where many 
bends are to be made. 

The minimum, maximum and advisable radius 
for pipe bends can be found in Table VII. 





TABLE VII 






RADII FOR PIPE BENDS* 




Diameter of 


Minimum 


Maximum 


Advisable 


Pipes 


Radius 


Radius 


Radius 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


2V2 


10 


25 


15 


3 


12 


30 


18 


3V2 


14 


35 


21 


4 


16 


40 


24 


AVz 


18 


45 


27 


5 


20 


50 


30 


6 


24 


60 


36 


7 


28 


70 


42 


8 


32 


80 


48 


9 


36 


90 


54 


10 


40 


100 


60 


11 


44 


110 


66 


12 


48 


120 


72 


14 0. D.* 


60 


140 


84 


15 " 


68 


145 


90 


16 " 


76 


150 


100 


18 " 


90 


165 


125 


20 " 


120 


180 


150 


22 " 


132 


198 


165 


24 " 


144 


216 


180 



* O. D. means outside diameter. 

A straight piece of pipe, that marked x on the 
illustrations, is required on the ends of all pipe 
bends to facilitate bending and threading them. 
The length of straight pipe, x, required for pipes 
of different diameters can be found in Table VIII. 











TABLE VIII 








LENGTH OF STRAIGHT PIPE X 




21' 


-inch pipe x 


. 


_ 


4 inches 


7-inch pipe x 


8 inches 


3 


-inch pipe x 


- 


- 


4 inches 


8-inch pipe x 


9 inches 


3! 


)-inch pipe x 


- 


- 


5 inches 


10-inch pipe x 


12 inches 


4 


-inch pipe x 


. 


- 


5 inches 


12-inch pipe x 


14 inches 


4i 


2-inch pipe x 


_ 


. 


6 inches 


14-inch pipe x 


15 inches 


5 


-inch pipe x 


- 


- 


6 inches 


15-inch pipe x 


16 inches 


6 


-inch pipe x 


- 


- 


7 inches 


16-inch pipe x 


20 inches 



' National Tube Co.'s Book of Standards. 

73 



>^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 




Fig. 85 
Expansion Loop 



Types of Iron Pipe Coils.— Plumbers and 
fitters are often called upon to furnish heating 
and cooling coils of various shapes and dimensions, 
and, while such coils can hard- 
ly be considered as related to 
wrought-pipe drainage sys- 
tems, it might not be amiss to 
illustrate a few stock types. 
Fig. 86 shows a plain spiral 
coil that can be made in any 
reasonable length and in sizes 
of pipe from J-inch to 4 inches, 
inclusive, in diameter. The 
lengths of pipe required to make such a coil are 
not connected together by means of screw coup- 
lings, but are permanently joined by an electric 
weld. When copper or 
brass coils are required the 
joints are brazed. A con- 
tinuous double coil is shown 
in Fig. 87. It consists of a 
left-hand and a right-hand 
spiral, joined at the top and 
having no screw joints. 
This gives a maximum 
amount of coil in a very 
compact space. An open 
pattern conical coil is shown 
in Fig. 88. This type of 
coil is extensively used in 
stoves for heating purposes, particularly in car 
heaters and water heating stoves. A close coni- 
cal coil is shown in Fig. 89. Coils of this shape 

74 




Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /# 





Fig. 87 
Continuous Double Coil 



made of tinned copper tubing are used in ice boxes 
for cooling water and in creameries for cooling 
cream. The cream falling from above flows in a 
thin film over both inner and 
outer surfaces of the cone, 
while cold water flows 
through the tube to carry off 
the heat from the cream. 
A close flat coil is shown 
in Fig. 90. Coils of this 

shape 

are used 

in ice 

tanks for 

cooling 
^ water. 
^ They are made both open and 

close patterns, and of iron 

or copper tubing. Reducing 
coils, Fig, 91, are used for condenser coils in dis- 
tilling plants. They are made by commencing 
with a large size of pipe 
and welding, end to end, 
successively smaller sizes 
until the last size is just 
what is required to carry 
the liquid. In Fig. 92 is 
shown a box coil nested. 
Nested coils can be made 
with any number of coils, 
either round, square or oblong, nested together. 
The different coils in the nest may be also of dif- 
ferent sizes of pipe. 

75 



Fig. 
Open Conical Coil 




Fig. 89 
Close Conical Coil 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems ^ 



Usually in nested coils the several pipes are 
connected to a manifold header, a, to eliminate 
friction and reduce the pres- 
sure required to force liquids 
through the coils. 

Pipe bends and coils, 
particularly when made from 
large 
sizes of 
pipe, are 
usually 
made by 
tube manufacturers or bending 
companies from sketches and 
dimensions furnished by the 
fitter. 

Great care and accuracy 
should be observed in making 
sketches and taking measure- 
ments, to see that not only 
will the coil fit the place made 




Fig. 
Close Flat Coil 




U Fig. 91 
Reducing Coil 



for, but that it can be easily put in that place. 

Pipe-Bending Forms and 
Machines. — Ordinarily, small 
size pipe bends, such as are 
required on all large installa- 
tions, are made by the work- 
men in the building. The 
Fig. 92 pipes are bent cold, and, for 

Box Coil Nested Small pipes, a vise is generally 
used as a bending form. Larger sizes of pipe, 
from 1 to 2 inches in diameter, are bent on the 
job, generally by using a pipe-bending form. A 

76 




Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 




Fig-. 93 
Pipe-Bending Form 



pipe -bending form made of iron and quite con- 
venient for either shop or job is shown in Fig. 93. 

Some form of pipe-bending 
devise is almost indispensable 
on a large job, v^here it will 
save its cost in workman's 
time searching for a suitable 
plank from which to improvise 
a bending form or board. The 
devise shown in Fig. 93, while 
very convenient, is limited in 
its usefulness to the making of simple bends and 
offsets. When double offsets or compound bends 
of any kind are to be made, a more improved pipe- 
bending de- 
vise will be 
found neces- 
sary. A pipe- 
bending 
machine that 
answers all 
requirements 
is shown in 
Fig. 94. With 
this type of 
machine, by 
the exercise 
of a little care 
and practice, 
Fig. 94 almost any 

Pipe-Bending Machine COnCeivablC 

form of bend can be made. When large sizes of 
pipe are to be bent into compound curves a templet, 

77 




^ 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



or pattern, of the bends should be made out of 
small pipe (i inch or § inch) to serve as a guide in 
bending the larger pipe. 

With a little practice, a skillful workman can 
bend small sizes of pipe, that is, anything from J- 
inch to 2-inches in diameter, into any desirable 
form or shape within reason, and the bends can be 
made without a kink or tool mark showing on the 
pipe. For pipes up to 2-inches in diameter, or- 
dinarily no heat will be required, indeed, the pipe 
can be bent better without being heated, unless 
particularly short bends are to be made. For bend- 
ing large sizes of pipe, on the other hand, it will 
be necessary to heat the metal, not so much be- 
cause heating the pipe causes it to bend better, but 
because it is easier to handle when hot, and lever- 
age enough could not well be secured to bend large 
sizes of pipe cold. 




78 




MAKING-UP PIPE 




SE of Joint Pastes.— To produce a per- 
fectly strong and tight joint in screw 
pipes it is necessary that the pipe 
threads be brought to a firm metal-to- 
metal contact along the entire engag- 
ing parts. To do so the threads must be absolutely 
clean, free from rust, and the metal should be well 
lubricated, in order to reduce the friction when 
screwing the pipes together. Friction in pipe 
joints is due to the large amount of bearing sur- 
face, which becomes greater the further the 
threads are made up; friction produces heat, which 
causes expansion of the joint, and as the pipe is 
lighter than the coupling or fitting it expands 
more, hence is made apparently tight, while the 
thread is comparatively loose; consequently, when 
pipe and fitting both cool again the pipe shrinks 
more than the fitting and a loose thread, liable to 
leak, results. To secure a good joint, the very 
best lubricant should be used; grit, paste or any 
form of gummy material tends to produce friction 
without, as many believe, filling the interstices of 
the threads and thus preventing leaks. Red lead, 

79 



'O Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 




Fig. 95 
Stillson Wrench 



white lead and asphaltum are not as satisfactory 
for making- up pipe threads as are lubricating oils; 
and graphite is superior to them all, as the graphite 
not only lubricates the threads, but when the oil 
dries out the graphite flakes prevent the threads 
from rusting together, thereby making it easy to 
disconnect the pipe at any time. If, however, the 

pipe is to be per- 
manently made 
up and it is not 
desired to discon- 
nect it at some 
future time, the 
threads can advantageously be made up with 
Smooth-On elastic cement. This will insure tight 
joints. 

Fittings are generally made up at the bench 
before taking the pipe from the vise. Small fit- 
tings, not over 2^ inches in diameter, are generally 
made up by 
screwing a 
short piece of 
pipe in the side 
outlet of the 
fitting and 
using this pipe for a turning lever. Chain tongs 
are used for making up larger sizes of fittings. 

Pipe Tongs and Wrenches.— Pipes are made 
up by the aid of pipe wrenches and chain tongs. 
Of the pipe wrenches used Stillson wrenches, Fig. 
95, and Trimo wrenches. Fig. 96, are among the 
best. These wrenches are made in sizes from 6 




Fig. 96 
Trimo Wrench 



80 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems ,Q 



inches to 48 inches in length and each size can be 
adjusted to grip several sizes of pipe. The length 
and range of various sizes of Stillson and Trimo 
wrenches can be found in Table IX: 

TABLE IX 

SIZE AND RANGE OF PIPE WRENCHES 



Length when open 


6-inch 


8-inch 


10-inch 


14-inch 


Takes from ■. . . 


? '4 -inch 

wire to 

i 2-inch 

pipe 


\ 8 -inch 

wire to 

?4-inch 

pipe 


1/8-inch 

wire to 

1-inch 

pipe 


;4-inch 

wire to 

lii-inch 

pipe 


Length when open 


18-inch 


24-inch 


38-inch 


48-inch 


Takes from . . . 


ki-inch 

wire to 

2-inch 

pipe 


U-inch 

wire to 

2! 2-inch 

pipe 


' 2-inch 

pipe to 

3! 2-inch 

pipe 


1-inch 

pipe to 

5-inch 

pipe 



Chain tongs are made in two patterns, open- 
link chain tongs and flat-link chain tongs. The 




Fig. 97 
Vulcan Chain Tongs 



Vulcan tongs, Fig. 97, is a type of the latter kind. 
The jaws of these tongs are drop forged and made 
reversible and interchangeable, so that they can be 




Fig. 
Robbins' Chain Tongs 



reversed, or, in case of injury, at trifling cost, be 
replaced with new jaws. Robbins' chain tongs. 
Fig. 98, are a type of open-link chain tongs. They 

81 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



are hand-forged tools and have no interchangeable 
parts; hence, when the jaws are dulled, or when 
in other ways the tongs are out of order, they 

TABLE X 
SIZE OF CHAIN TONGS 



Length of lever, inches 


27 


36 


48 


Size of chain .... 


TB 


le ^8 


Weight, pounds . . . 




12 


24 


For pipe 


1 to 2 


IM to 4 


2 to 6 


Length of lever, inches 


60 


72 


84 


Size of chain .... 


Vi 


% 


?4 


Weight, pounds . . . 


33 


50 


100 


For pipe 


21 '2 to 8 


4 to 10 


4 to 16 



must be sent to the blacksmith's for repairs. The 
size of chain tongs and the diameters of pipes they 
will turn can be found in Table X. 




82 




MEASUREMENTS AND 
SKETCHES 




► XPLANATION of Signs —Space will 
not always permit words to be spelled 
out in full on a pipe sketch without 
crowding- the measurements to such an 
extent as to make the characters unin- 
telligible; hence, in writing down measurements, 
many signs and abbreviations are used, the mean- 
ing of which should be perfectly understood by the 
fitter, to enable him to interpret the sketch. 

The sign for feet is a little mark ( ' ) placed at 
the right upper side of a figure, thus— 2'; when so 
placed it indicates that the dimension referred to 
is 2 feet. The inch sign is a double mark ( " ) 
placed at the upper right side of a figure as in the 
case with feet. When so placed it indicates that 
the quantity refers to inches. Thus 4" would be 
read 4 inches. When both feet and inches are a 
part of a quantity the number of feet with the 
mark annexed is written and followed immediately, 
without intervening sign, by the number of inches 
and the inch mark. Thus 2' 4" would be read 2 
feet 4 inches. Sometimes the feet and inches are 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



written with a dash or hyphen between; thus 2'— 4" 
would be read 2 feet 4 inches as in the foregoing 
case, the dash not affecting the values. 

Bends in pipes or fittings are measured in de- 
grees, which are indicated thus— °. A degree sign 
placed after a number indicates that the bend re- 
ferred to is made at an angle of that many degrees 
from a straight line. Thus a 45° bend would be 
read a 45-degree bend. 

Reading Measurements.— There are two 

dimensions which should be marked on pipe 
sketches — the size of the pipe to be cut and its 
length. The size of pipe is marked crosswise on 
the pipe, as shown by the dimension 4" in Fig. 99, 



-3^8"£'-E- 






Fig. 99 
End-to-End Measiirement 

or it may be marked alongside of the pipe, but 
always at right angles to it. When the size marks 
are omitted on some pieces of pipe on a sketch the 
large size of pipe is understood to continue up to 
the point where a smaller size is indicated. The 
outlets to the run of the fittings on a sketch take 
their size from the pipes screwed into them, and 
when marked pipes are screwed into all outlets of 
a fitting the dimensions of the fitting need not be 
marked. However, when a reducing fitting is used 
any outlet into which a marked pipe is not 
screwed must have the size of outlets marked to 
indicate the kind of fitting required. When no 

84 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems ^ 



dimensions are marked on a fitting it is understood 
to be a straight fitting of the size of the pipe. 

End-to-End Measurements. — The method of 
measuring the lengths of pipe and the way the 
measurements are indicated on a pipe sketch are 
shown in Figs. 99, 100 and 101. In Fig. 99 the 
measurement, which is from end to end, is indica- 
ted by the abbreviation E-E. End-to-End meas- 
urements may be from the end of a pipe to the end 
of a fitting screwed thereon; it may be over all 
from the end of a fitting screwed on one end of a 
pipe to the end of another fitting screwed on the 
other end of the pipe, or it may be a measurement 
over several pieces of pipe and several fittings 
from extreme end to extreme end. 

Center-to- End Measurements. — Center-to- 
end measurements are shown in Fig. 100, and 
are abbreviated C-E. In this case the dimension 
is taken from the center of the fitting to the end of 
the pipe and would shorten the actual length of 
pipe to 3 feet 8 inches minus a, the distance from 




3'8" C-E 



Fig-. 100 
Center-to-End Measurement 

the end of the pipe to the center of the elbow. 
Like in the case of end -to -end measurements, 
center-to-end measurements may be for a section 
of pipe containing several pieces of pipe and 
fittings. 

85 



»\ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /* 



Genter-to-Genter Measurements. — Center-to- 
center measurements, Fig. 101, are abbreviated 
C-C. They are taken from the center of one fit- 
ting to the center of the other. This measurement 
shortens the actual length of pipe to 3 feet 8 
inches, minus a and 6, the distance from the ends 
of the pipe to the center of the fittings. As in the 
two preceeding cases, center-to-center measure- 
ments may be over several pieces of pipe from the 
center of one end fitting to the center of another. 

In cutting and threading wrought-iron pipe to 
fit measurements taken from center of fitting to 
center of fitting, allowance is made for the space 

3-8" C-C 




IT 




Fig. 101 
Center-to-Center Measurement 

taken up by the fitting on each end of the pipe, 
and a proportional length is cut from the pipe to be 
threaded. The exact length in inches that must 
be taken off different sizes of pipe to allow for the 
fittings cannot be stated as a rule, because different 
types of fittings require different lengths, and even 
fittings of the same type, but made by different 
manufacturers, vary so in dimensions that pipe cut 
for one make of fitting would not fit when used 
with fittings made by a different manufacturer. 
Further, in using fittings made by one manufac- 
turer, but tapped at different times, the difference 
in the tappings will make sufficient difference to 

86 



If 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /#1 



throw a close measurement out of true. The best 
way to allow for fittings is to determine, by finding- 
how far a thread will make up in a fitting, just 
what distance there will be from the end of the 
pipe to the center of the fitting, and cut that length 
off the pipe. This is usually done, in practice, by 
laying the fitting alongside the pipe in such a posi- 
tion that the end of the pipe will extend along the 
fitting a distance equal to which the thread will 
make up in the fitting and measuring from the end 
of the pipe to the center of the fitting. This dis- 
tance, on each end, is equal to the length of pipe 
that must be cut off to allow for a center-to-center 
measurement. 

In handling small sizes of pipe, however, par- 
ticularly where the measurements need not be ex- 
act, the measurements are taken from center to 
center and the workman, when getting out the 
pipes, allows a certain amount for fittings. The 
amount so allowed is generally the average of a 
number of measurements of the fittings used in 
that locality. For instance, with most fittings, an 
allowance of §-inch for each f-inch fitting; J-inch 
for each J-inch fitting; f-inch for f-inch fittings, 
and |-inch for 1-inch fittings will be found suffi- 
ciently accurate. In the same way an average can 
be allowed for fittings up to two inches in diameter, 
but above that size patterns vary so in design that 
each fitting should be measured separately for 
close work. 

Explanation of Degrees in Fittings. — There is 
a unit or standard for measuring the angle of bends 
and branch fittings, just as there are units for the 

87 



V> . l y 

Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 




measurement of time, length, weight and volume. 
The unit of measurement for fittings is known as 
a degree and is one of the 360 equal divisions of a 
circle. For instance, if in Fig. 102, beginning 
/go' where the vertical 

line cuts the lower 
arc, the figure was 
divided into 360 
equal parts, 180 of 
the divisions would 
be on each side of 
the vertical line, and 
this straight hne 
would therefore 
represent one -half 
the number of equal 
pfg^jQ2 divisions in the circle 

Diagram Explaining- Degrees in Fittings Or 180 degTCeS. In 

the naming of fittings, one half the circle is ig- 
nored, and the angle 180 degrees is used as a base. 
This straight line represents a straight piece of 
pipe which might properly be called a no -degree 
bend. Likewise, it represents the straight run of 
a branch fitting, and any branch or bend from that 
run is measured and named according to the num- 
ber of degrees it includes between the center of 
the branch and the straight line. For example, 
the straight line may represent the run of a Y 
branch, and the 45-degree line the angle of the 
branch outlet; or, the straight hne may represent 
a straight run of pipe, and the 45-degree line the 
angle that would be given the pipe by means of a 
45-degree bend. In the same manner, an elbow 



*\ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems Q 



would form the right angle marked by the 90-de- 
gree line; and likewise, this is the direction that 
would be given the branch to a T fitting, which is 
really a 90-degree branch, when the run was along 
the no-degree line. 

Measuring for 45-Degree Connections. — The 

usual method in practice of measuring for a 45- 
degree connection is shown in Fig. 103. Trial 
pieces, a and 6, are screwed by hand into a 45-de- 
gree bend, and the section thus made is held in 
such a position that the trial pieces align with the 
trial piece c and the main pipe d, or on a line where 




Fig. 103 
45° Measurement 

the pipe d will be run. The measurements are 
then taken from center of fitting to center of fit- 
ting, allowance afterward being made for the 
threads. A much simpler way is to measure the 
distance, e, from the center of one pipe to the cen- 
ter of where the other one will be run and multiply 
the distance by 1,41. The product will be the 
measurement of the 45-degree connection from 
center to center of the bends. Allowance must 
then be made for the fittings to find the exact 
measurement of the pipe. For instance, if the dis- 
tance, e, be 6 feet, the length of pipe, /, from cen- 

89 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



ter to center of fitting will be 6x1.41=8.46 feet, or 
8 feet 6 inches nearly. The reason for this is sim- 
ple. The connection is the diagonal of a square, 
the sides of which are 6 feet and the ratio of the 
diagonal of a square to one of its sides is 1.414; but 
as two points are as far as a decimal need be car- 
ried in practice the constant 1.41 will answer. 

In like manner, when the dimension of the 
short side of a rectangle— that is, the distance the 
pipe is to be offset— is known, also the angle of fit- 
ting to be used, the length of the connection from 
center to center can be found by multiplying the 
short end of rectangles by the ratio for that angle. 
For bends of greater angle than 45-degrees the 
long side of the rectangle should be taken. The 
ratio or constant for the various bends used in 
drainage work can be found in the Table XI: 

TABLE XI 

RATIOS FOR DIFFERENT ANGLES 



Degrees 

of 

Bend 


Name of 

Wrought- 

Iron 

Fitting 


Name of 

Soil 
Fitting 


Ratio of 
diagonal to 

side of 
Rectangle 


5% 

im 

221/2 
30 
45 
60 


Elbows 

55/8° 
1114° 

221/2° 
30° 
450 
60° 


Bend 

i 

1/6 


10.22 
5.12 
2.61 
200 
1.41 
1.15 



In all cases due allowance must be made for 
the length of fittings, as the distance computed 
will be from center to center of fitting. 

Some fitters find it easier to use common frac- 
tions and add 5 inches for each foot the line is to 
be offset, or I'j-inch for each inch the line is to be 

90 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



offset. Thus, in the foregoing example, adding 5 
inches for each foot the hne is to be offset would 
be 5x6=30 inches, which, added to the 6 feet off- 
set, would equal 6 feet plus 2 feet 6 inches (30 
inches) , or 8 feet 6 inches from center-to-center of 
bends. 

The method of finding the length of a 45-de- 
gree bend by adding tV-inch for each inch the line 
is to be offset is indicated in the following example: 

Example. —What will be the length 

of a 45-degree connection where 

the line is offset 6 feet ? 
Solution.— 6 feet=72 inches and 

72x1^ = 8 feet 6 inches. 

(Answer. ) 

Sometimes it is necessary to find the length of 
a 45-degree connection between two pipes that run 
at right angles to each other, 
as shown in Fig. 104, instead 
of parallel to each other, as in 
the preceding example. When 
such is the case, from the cen- 
ter of one of the bends, as a, 
measure the distance, b, to the 
center axis, c, of the pipe, d. 
The length, b, then multiplied 
by the constant for that angle 
will give the length of 
the connection from 
center to center. 

Measuring Instruments. — For short measure- 
ments of pipes, or for laying out work on a job, a 

91 




Fig. 104 
Measurement for 45° Connection 



V ^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 

two-foot rule is generally used. However, when 
long lengths of pipe, or long distances in a build- 
ing, are to be measured, there will be less liability 
of errors if a longer instrument be employed. For 
most purposes a ten-foot rod will be found a very 
convenient instrument. This consists of a wooden 
rod, 10 feet long, divided up by marks into feet 
and inches, thus making it really a ten-foot rule. 
When a tape line is used, for accurate measure- 
ments, it should be either a steel tape or a cloth 
tape with steel strands embedded. An ordinary 
tape line will stretch sufficiently to cause errors. 

Pipe Sketches. — Drainage pipes for small in- 
stallations, where the sizes of pipes are 4 inches or 
less in diameter, are usually cut and threaded with 
hand tools on the premises. The pipe for large in- 
stallations, however, where pipes larger than 4 
inches in diameter are used, also where a large 
quantity of piping from 2 inches to 4 inches in diam- 
eter is to be installed, is cut and threaded at the 
shop from sketches and measurements taken in the 
building. In getting out pipe for drainage work it 
is customary to sketch, measure and cut certain 
sections at a time; for instance, the house drain 
would be sketched and measured in one section; 
the stack of soil, waste and vent pipe in another 
section, and the branch connections to fixtures in 
another section. A sketch such as would be sent 
to a shop from which to get out pipe for an installa- 
tion is shown in Fig. 105. On this sketch are 
marked the sizes of the various pipes, which, in 
turn, give the size of fitting outlets; also the length 

92 



!^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems o' 








Fig. 105 
Pipe Sketch for Sending to Shop 



93 



> ■ " ■'■ ' 1 ^ 

Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



of all pipes measured from center-to-end, from end- 
to-end or from center- to -center. By following 
carefully the data furnished on this pipe sketch the 
pipe can be cut and threaded hundreds of miles 
away from the work as accurately as though cut 
on the premises. When pipe is cut and threaded 
on the premises less pains are taken to make a 
sketch than when the sketch is to be sent away 
Usually, in the former case, a line drawing similar 
to Fig. 106 is deemed sufficient, as the fitter has in 
mind the layout of the work and only requires a 
memorandum containing the various measure- 
ments. When getting out pipe at the bench from 
a sketch, the fitting that will be screwed onto the 
pipe when installed should be used to measure by. 
The reason for this requirement is that fittings 
made by different manufacturers differ in length, 
and a pipe cut to measure with a certain fitting 
might not fit when used with one of a different 
make. 

In Fig. 107 is shown a plan view of a battery 
of eight water closets, set back to back, with a 
space of one foot for pipes left between the com- 
partments. The closets are set 3 feet from center- 
to-center, and it will be assumed that the distance, 
a, between the center of the tiers of closet outlets 
is found by measurement to be 3 feet, also that the 
stack, b, is equidistant from a line drawn through 
each tier of closet outlets; then, to take the meas- 
urements of the pipe for this battery of closets, 
with a chalk line strike two parallel lines, a, b, Fig. 
108, 3 feet apart, and a third line, c, midway be- 
tween them. These three lines then represent, 

94 



j^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /? 




Fig-. 106 
Pipe Sketch for Workman '3 Own Use 



95 



!»\ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /*J 



respectively, the two lines of closet outlets in the 
two tiers, and the center of the soil stack outlet. 
Next draw a line, d, at right angles to the other 




Fig. 107 
Plan of Battery of Closets 



lines and so as to cut all three of them, then at 
intervals of 3 feet draw the lines e, /, g, and at a 
distance of 2 feet 3 inches from the line g draw the 







Fig. 108 
Laying Out Measurements for Closets 

short line h. The lines d, e, /, g, where they cross 
the lines a, 6, will mark the center of outlets from 
the eight water closets. Now 18 inches from the 

96 



»S Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems Q^ 



lines d, e, f, g, in the direction of the soil stack, 
draw the lines i, j, k, I, and the points where they 
cross the line c will mark the center of the closet 




Fig. 109 
Measurements for Battery of Closets 

double Y branches; by measuring from these points 
to the center of closets, as, for instance, from i to 6, 
will give the required length of pipe from center 




Fig-. 110 
Taking Back- Vent Measurements 

of double Y to center of closet bend. If the pipe 
is to be cut and threaded where the measurements 
are taken the respective fittings can be laid in their 

97 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



proper places, as shown in Fig. 109, and the actual 
lengths of pipe measured. 

The drainage and vent pipes, for the battery 
of closets, are shown installed in Fig. 110. When 
taking the measurements previously explained, 
measurements would also be taken for the pieces 
a and 6, the lengths of which would be determined 
by measuring from the branch outlet in the soil 
stack to the height desired for the center of the 
T's, c, c, then allowing for the grade of the pipe 
from the soil stack outlet to the point where the 
elbows turn up for the closets. The back-vent 
pipe connections, d, e, from the soil pipes to the 
main vent, /, being 2 inches in diameter, would be 
cut and threaded on the premises. They would be 
made up with right-and-left-hand elbows, or a 
separate right-and-left coupling could be used. 
The short pieces of 4-inch pipe, g, h, would be 
measured and cut after the rest of the work shown 
had been installed. 

Great care formerly had to be observed in cut- 
ting, threading and screwing in these nipples so 
that the flanges would be perfectly level and all 
finish flush with the toilet-room floor. The con- 
nection was a very difficult one to make for that 
reason, for a crooked thread on either end of the 
nipple or in the flange, would throw the fitter's 
measurements out of true. The ball-joint closet 
flange previously mentioned now makes this con- 
nection simple and easy, for the flange does not 
have to be screwed down so that it rests perfectly 
level on the floor, as the ball-joint with adjustable 
seat compensates for any crookedness in threads or 

98 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 

variation in height of the flange. The illustration 
shows iron pipe extended clear to the closet. In 
practice, however, connections of lead are more 
frequently extended to the closet to allow for ex- 
pansion of the pipes or settling of the building 
or stacks without injury to the piping or fixtures. 
The use of an ordinary lead bend, or a short piece 
of 4-inch lead pipe does not compensate sufficiently 
for the settlement of walls, floors or stacks, for the 
reason that lead pipe of itself is not flexible and 
whatever "give" there is to the lead connections 
to closets and slop sinks, is due to the kinking, 
bending, tearing or some other damage to the lead 
pipe. What is needed is a perfectly flexible con- 
nection or fitting which will give without damage 
to pipe or fixtures under a settlement of the floors, 
so that the closets will always remain securely 
seated on the floors; and which under a settlement 
of the soil stacks, will expand without distortion, 
damage or injury to pipe, flxture, joints or connec- 
tion. Such a fitting is now made and can be had 
either in the form of a bend or as a straight piece 
of pipe. Small folds, corrugations or convolutions 
in the pipes like the folds of an accordian, draw out 
or fold together, according to whether they are sub- 
jected to a tension or compression stress; and, if 
subjected to a sidewise movement, will compress 
on one side and expand on the other to compensate 
for the lateral movement. In very tall buildings a 
greater amount of trouble is experienced from the 
settlement of floors and stacks, and in such installa- 
tions, if flexible fittings or bends are not used, it is 
better to run the horizontal branch for a battery 

99 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



of closets to one side of the tier of outlets, and 
take the various branch connections from the side 
of the soil pipe and turn up to the closets with a 
bend, then to run directly under the tier of outlets, 
allowing TY fittings, or Y branches and J bends to 
pass straight up to the closet fixtures, this latter 
method of course is the cheaper one and the better 
method when flexible connections are used. 

When a pipe sketch is sent to the shop to 
have the pipe cut and threaded a copy should be 
kept by the fitter by which to check up the pipes 
and fittings when they are delivered to the build- 
ing; also as a guide when installing the work. The 
machine hand in the shop, when getting out pipe 
to sketch, should screw the proper fitting on each 
piece of pipe as it is cut, and before shipping it 
should see that each piece is marked with the 
proper length and letters and that all threads are 
protected by screwing short pieces of pipe together 
or else by having couplings screwed on the threads 
to protect them in transit. 




100 




PLANNING THE WORK 




MAYING Out Work from Plans.-The 

following six illustrations show plan 
views of the basement, first, second, 
third and fourth floors of a hospital 
building, and a detail of the work in 
one of the bath rooms. In order to intelligently 
lay out the system of drainage pipes in this build- 
ing it would first be necessary to plan in the mind 
the exact layout of each set of fixtures. Often it 
will be found that by a slight rearrangement of 
the fixtures in a group the stacks of soil, waste 
and vent pipes can be more directly run, with less 
cutting of walls and partitions and with consider- 
able less labor, pipes and fittings. 

It must be borne in mind that at the stage of 
the construction of a building when the plumbing 
is roughed-in there are but few partitions set; con- 
sequently, before any of the rising lines can be 
located the rooms in which the fixtures are to be 
installed must be laid out in their proper locations. 
When groups of fixtures on the several floors are 
located directly above one another the installation 
of the system becomes much simplified. In that 

101 



•N Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



case the location of the stack for the top group of 
fixtures is determined, and a plumb-line dropped to 
the basement to mark the center of the stack, 
which serves for the several groups of fixtures on 
all the floors. If the groups of fixtures on the 
several floors are not set directly above one another, 
the plumb-line would be dropped from the lowest 
group of fixtures and provision made for offsetting 
the line above the outlet for that group. 

A simple way to find if the fixtures on the 
several floors are directly above one another is to 
arrange the plans together so that the outside lines 
of the walls all coincide, then stick a pin point 
through the entire set of plans where the stack for 
the top set of fixtures will be located and note the 
location of the pin hole on the lower floor plans. 

To illustrate the manner of laying out the 
work for a group of fixtures in a bath room, take, 
for example, the main bath room. Fig. Ill, on the 
fourth-story plan of the hospital building shown in 
subsequent illustrations. 

It should be borne in mind, which full-sized 
plans would show, that the outside walls, a and 6, 
Fig. Ill, are furred, also that the thickness of 
walls would be indicated. The problem for the 
fitter is to find the exact location of the finished 
wall lines, c and d. To do so he must first learn 
the thickness of furring strip to be used. Assum- 
ing a thickness of furring strip of 2 inches, and 
allowing 1 inch for lath and plaster, would bring 
the inside of the walls, a and 6, 3 inches from the 
inner surfaces of the rough walls. This allowance 
of 3 inches would properly locate the finished wall, 

102 



»\ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



2 




103 



JS Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



c, of the bathroom and the finished wall, e, of the 
nurses' room, which adjoins the bathroom. 
Having the line, e, and knowing the dimensions of 
the partition studs, the line d is easily obtained. 
For instance, if pipes were to be concealed in the 
partition, the studs would doubtless be 2x6. If no 
pipes were to be concealed, 2x4 studding would 
probably be used. Assuming dimensions of 2x6, 
and allowing 1 inch on each side of the studding 
for lath and plaster, would bring the line d 8 inches 
from the finished wall line, e, or 5 inches back 
from the face of the rough wall, a. The line d 
having been found, a strip of wood should be 
nailed there to preserve the place. 

The location of fixture waste outlets is next in 
order. These outlets depend entirely on the dimen- 
sions and kinds of fixtures and fixture fittings to 
be used. For instance, a washout closet would 
have a different outlet measurement than a 
syphon- jet closet, and even like types of closets 
made by different manufacturers have different 
outlet measurements; so that work roughed-in for 
one make of closet might not be suitable for 
another make. It is customary, therefore, when 
roughing-in work to provide the foreman with 
sketches showing the exact measurements of the 
fixture to be used. In taking the measurement of 
bath tub outlets the fittings to be used must be 
known. This requirement is necessary because a 
combined waste-and-overf low invariably comes 
under the rim of a bath tub, and requires no extra 
space for its use, whereas a unique waste, or bell 
supply, requires 2 to 3 inches over the length of 

104 



'»\ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems O. 




105 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



the tub. Another point which must be considered 
in setting a bath tub is the distance it will be kept 
from the wall. In narrow bathrooms, where space 
is limited, the tub is usually set tight against the 
wall; while in large bathrooms, where space will 
permit, the bath tub is kept 6 or more inches from 
the wall, to allow room for cleaning back of tub. 
In the case of the example, assuming a tub 5 
feet 6 inches long over all, with an extra allowance 
of 3 inches for bell supply and waste, and allowing 
a total width of 2 feet 2 inches, the tub to be set 

1 inch from each wall, would make the measure- 
ment for the waste outlet to the tub 5 feet 10 
inches from the wall c, and 14 inches from wall d. 

The waste outlet from the basin would next be 
considered. The edge of the basin, where space 
permits, should be kept at least 6 inches away 
from the roll rim of the tub. In the present 
example we will assume a basin 30 inches in width 
with the outlet located to the center and back, and 
3 inches clear space between the edge of the basin 
and the bath tub. In fitting up the basin an S 
trap might be used, but as an S trap extends to 
the floor, thus taking up valuable floor space, be- 
sides being an unsightly appendage, always in the 
way, it is more than likely a good fitter would use 
a 4 S trap and extend the pipe back to the wall. 
The distance from the floor to the basin waste out- 
let must then be found. Ordinarily, a basin is set 

2 feet 6 inches above the floor. If in the case of 
the example a trap connected to the bottom of a 
basin measures 16 inches to the center of the out- 
let from the top of basin slab, the 16 inches would 

106 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems fi^ 




107 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



have to be deducted from 2 feet 6 inches, which 
would leave the distance from the floor to the cen- 
ter of the basin waste 14 inches. Allowing a clear 
space of 3 inches between the basin and the tub, 
then the outlet to the basin TY would be located 
1 inch + 3 inches + 5 feet 9 inches + 1 foot 3 inches 
=7 feet 4 inches from wall c, and 14 inches from 
the floor to center of outlet. 

The closet should have a clear space of at least 
14 inches from the edge of the basin to center of 
closet; where space will permit more room should 
be allowed. The distance the closet waste will be 
set from the partition d can be found by measuring 
the closet. In the present example a distance of 1 
foot will be assumed. The outlet from the closet 
would then be located 9 feet 9 inches from the 
wall c and 12 inches from wall d. 

Having located the outlets to the various fix- 
tures it next becomes necessary to locate the stacks 
of soil and waste pipe. It might be remarked, in 
passing, that reversing the order of the fixtures so 
that the closet would be in the corner where the 
bath tub now is located, and changing the bath tub 
to where the closet is located, would bring all the 
rising lines of soil, vent and waste pipe in the cor- 
ner, where they would be more out of the way. 
However, it is not always possible to locate stacks 
where they would be more convenient for the fitter. 
He must sometimes locate them where they are 
least convenient, for a satisfactory layout. In the 
present example it will be assumed that it was 
necessary to locate the soil and vent stacks where 
shown. The branch soil, waste and vent pipes to 

108 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems (» 




109 



!^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /^ 



the fixtures in the bathroom under consideration 
would then be run as indicated on the plan and 
elevation. 

In roughing-in the work in a bathroom or toilet 
room great care must be exercised to get the 
proper height of the finished floor level. Should 
the floor level be calculated too high, part of the 
waste piping might project above its surface; while 
should the floor level be calculated too low, the fix- 
ture branches might not project through the floor 
a sufficient distance to be soldered to the fixture 
connections. All outlets to the drainage system 
should be securely capped or plugged to prevent 
the introduction of dirt into the piping and so the 
system will be ready for testing. Lead pipes or 
bends should have their ends closed by a round 
disk soldered in the opening. A round disk not 
only closes the opening for testing and the exclu- 
sion of dirt, but also preserves the shape of the 
pipe outlet. It is always well to take the precau- 
tion to temporarily box in exposed connections in 
toilet rooms to prevent their being damaged by 
plasterers or other workmen throwing planks on 
them. 

When the various stacks of soil, waste and 
vent pipe in the building have been located in the 
manner indicated in the foregoing example, plumb- 
lines are dropped to the basement to locate the 
points where the various hues will intersect the 
house drain. Usually the run of the house drain is 
marked on the plans and all the fitter has to do is 
to follow the plan. In this case, however, it will 
be assumed that no house drain is shown and the 

110 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems /^ 




111 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



method of laying it out and taking the measure- 
ment will be explained. To simplify the example 
no rain leaders will be included. 

The point where the main house drain enters 
the building governs to a great extent the layout 
of the house drain in the cellar or basement of that 
building, and influences somewhat the manner of 
taking measurements. In the present example it 
will be assumed that the house drain enters the 
building at the point marked a on the basement 
plan, Fig. 112, while the rising lines of soil and 
waste pipe are located at the points marked on the 
first, second, third and fourth floor plans. Figs. 
113, 114, 115 and 116. The problem, then, is to 
connect the various rising lines to the house drain 
in the most direct manner possible. The first thing 
is to locate the main drain. This can be done by 
stretching a line parallel with the outside walls of 
the building, from the point 6 to a point c. This 
line represents the main house drain. There are 
two ways of connecting the stacks to this drain. 
One way is to use 45-degree angle Y fittings and 
run the branch pipes diagonally across the building 
until they intersect the drain; the other is to use 
TY fittings and run the branch pipes at right 
angles to, and until they intersect, the house drain. 

The kind of connection to be used will depend 
on local conditions. Some connections might have 
to be run at right angles to the house drain to 
avoid obstacles, while other branches might require 
to be run at angles of 45 degrees for the same 
reason. When the house drain is suspended from 
the basement or cellar ceiling it generally is better 

112 



»S Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



^ 




113 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 




to run the branches at right angles, as by this 
method, where long branch lines are required, 
they will not pass through more than one room nor 
cross doors leading to the corridor on the way to the 

house drain. Further- 
more, a right-angle con- 
nection requires less pipe 
than does a 45-degree 
connection, and as it 
shortens the distance to 
be traversed by sewage 
from the fixture to the 
main drain it may be con- 
sidered, in some cases, 
the better of the two con- 
nections. In the example 
it will be assumed that 
no structural parts of the 
building, nor apparatus 
of any kind, interferes with the use of either right- 
angle or 45-degree angle connections. The system 
would then be run as indicated by lines on the 
plans. 

Having the points where the rising stacks turn 
up and the location of the house drain marked by a 
line, the measurements of pipe can easily be taken 
by means of a 10-foot rod or a tape line by follow- 
ing instructions previously given. A good-sized 
protractor. Fig. 117, will be found convenient when 
taking the house drain measurements. The pro- 
tractor can be used to locate the point where a 
branch connection of any angle used in drainage 
work will intersect the main house drain. The 



Fig. 117 
Protractor 



114 






Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



manner of using- the protractor is shown in the 
illustration. The center line of the protractor is 
held in line with the cord a, b, which represents 
the main house drain, and the protractor is then 
moved backward or forward until a line, c, connec- 
ted to a nail at the point where the rising- line will 
be located, coincides with the angle to be used. For 
instance, one end of the line, c, in the illustration 
is connected to the center of the bottom of a stack, 
and the point where the other end crosses the 
house sewer line when on the 45-degree angle 
mark of the protractor indicates where the center 
of a Y fitting should be located; and a cord tied to 
the string at this point will mark the location for a 
Y branch in the house drain. To find where a 90- 
degree bend from this stack would intersect the 
drain, the protractor should be moved forward to the 
position shown by dotted lines, when it would indi- 
cate the place or point of connection. A protractor 
is shown in place on the house drain in Fig. 112, 
where it illustrates the application, and at the same 
time shows more nearly its relative size. In Fig. 
117 the protractor is made out of proportion to the 
distances indicated, in order to show in detail what 
a protractor looks like. This simple little instru- 
ment, which need not be longer than 2 feet, will 
be found useful oftentimes for measuring the de- 
gree of angle of bends about which their might be 
some doubt. 

The method of laying out work from plans and 
taking measurements, given in this chapter, is 
merely a suggestion and need not be followed liter- 
ally. The fitter must use his own judgment in 

115 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 

each case, and originate a method of his own. 
For instance, if the basement floor were laid and 
clear of rubbish, he might strike chalk lines on the 
floor to represent the several runs of pipe, and 
take his measurements from those lines. Again, 
2x4 studding may be strung along to represent 
where the pipes will be run, and measurements 
taken from the studding. 

The point to make is that the layout must first 
be visualized in the mind, then, starting from some 
definite point, the work laid out and places marked 
to locate the different runs of pipe and the fittings. 




116 




INSTALLING WROUGHT-PIPE 
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS 




ENERAL METHODS.— When in- 
stalling drainage systems in tall steel 
structures, the plumbers generally 
work ahead of the masons and carry 
up their stacks of soil and waste pipe 
along with the iron work. By thus working ahead 
of the masons much time can be saved by putting 
the roughing-in pipes in the wall and floor spaces 
before the floor and wall tiles are set. Great ac- 
curacy, however, must be observed in locating 
rising and branch lines so they will be in their 
proper places. A good plan is to take all measure- 
ments from the outside walls of the building, as 
they will be found accurately located, whereas 
partitions might vary enough from the plans to 
throw the measurements out of place. 

In many buildings it is necessary to put in the 
rising soil and waste lines before the house drain 
is installed; when such is the case it becomes neces- 
sary, after the house drain is installed, to connect 
the rising lines to the drain by means of some kind 
of a union joint. 

117- 



s 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



Reversing Couplings. — Ordinary couplings, 
such as come with all lengths of small size wrought- 
pipe, are tapped without taper. This and the 
fact that the threads in the free end of the coup- 
lings are liable to become damaged in transit has 
led to the practice commonly known to the trade 
as reversing couplings. 

When a coupling, with a straight untapered 
thread, at the mill is screwed onto a piece of pipe 
which is threaded with a taper thread, the eifect 
is, not only to slightly expand the coupling, but 
also to contract the pipe. The first thing an ex- 
perienced pipe-fitter does to prepare a lot of 
wrought-pipe for erection, is to unscrew the coup- 
lings from the random lengths, turn the couplings 
around, and screw them on part way again. Then 
when he comes to install the pipe in the building 
the expansion in one end of a couphng will be 
equalized by a previously unused thread on the 
pipe; and the contraction in the used thread of the 
pipe will be equalized by the straight thread in the 
un-expanded end of the coupling. Among users, 
as a general rule, coupling- joints have a very bad 
reputation; although in most instances it is merely 
necessary to turn the coupling around, in the 
manner described, to make the joint tight and 
strong. Reversing the couplings is advantageous 
in another way. Threads in the free end of a coup- 
ling are often bent or damaged in handling, so that 
the male thread on a pipe cannot easily be entered. 
By reversing the couplings before a pipe is in- 
stalled, the fitter knows he will have a good thread 
in the coupling when he comes to use it in the 

•118 



s: 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



2 



building, and if it be damaged, the threads can 
easily be straightened at the bench when the coup- 
ling is being reversed. 



Fig. 118 

Single Flange 

Connection 




Fig. 119 

Double Flange 

Connection 



Flange Union Joints. — The fitting most com- 
monly used for connecting together two sections of 
large-size waste or vent stacks is a flange union. 

119 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



When^ there is sufficient spring to the separate 
parts that are to be connected to allow for the 
length of thread on the last piece of pipe to be 
screwed in, the connection can be made with a 
flange union, as shown in Fig. 118. When, how- 
ever, both the fittings are held rigidly in place two 
flange unions, as shown in Fig. 119, must be used. 
This permits the section a to be slipped into place 
without disturbing the other parts of the connec- 
tion. Gaskets for flange unions used in a drainage 
system should be of sheet copper, sheet lead or 
asbestos sheet packing. 

Right-and-Lef t Connections.— C on n e c t ion s 

between two sections of pipe 2 inches and smaller 
in diameter are usually made with right-and-left 
threads when there is sufficient spring to allow the 
right-and-left coupling or right-and-left nipple to 
be slipped into place. When making up a right- 
and-left connection the coupling is first screwed on 
one thread, for instance the right thread, as far as 
it can easily be screwed with a wrench. The coup- 
ling is then marked, after which it is unscrewed 
and the number of threads it was made up counted. 
The coupling is next screwed on the left thread 
and in like manner the number of threads it made 
up is counted. The difference between the number 
of threads it made up on the right threads and left 
threads then determines the number of turns lead 
it must have on one thread when being permanent- 
ly put together. For instance, if the coupling 
made up four turns on the left thread and six turns 
on the right thread, in making the joint up per- 

120 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



manently, the coupling would be started two turns 
on the right thread before entering the left thread. 
Then, when the coupling is permanently screwed 
on the pipe both threads will 
make up equally tight. If a 
rig?it-and-left nipple is used in- 
stead of a right-and-left coupling 
the threads would be screwed up 
and counted in the same manner. 
The term right-and-left is marked 
on plans or pipe sketches and 
listed in catalogues by the abbre- 
viation R. & L. Right-and-left 
couplings or nipples of larger dia- 
meters than 2 inches are seldom 
used. 

Running-Thread Connec- 
tions.— Connections are often 
made between pipes in drainage 
work by means of a running 
thread and coupling, as shown in 
Fig. 120. This is not so reliable 
a connection as a flange joint, but 
it can sometimes be used more 
conveniently than flange joints 
or other connections, and when a 
metal ring gasket, a, is used in 
the joint between the coupling 
and the follower, h, a perfectly 
tight and permanent joint is 
secured. To make a running-thread connection, 
the last piece of pipe screwed in must be cut short 
enough so it will slip in between the sections to be 

121 




Fig. 120 

Running Thread 

Connection 



»S Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



joined; then, when screwed into place it leaves a 
space, c, between the ends of the pipes which must 
be bridged by the coupling. Up to this time the 
coupling has been screwed onto the running- thread, 
even with the end of the pipe. When it is now 
unscrewed to bridge the gap between the pipe and 
make up on the lower thread it leaves a loose fit 
on the running-thread which has no taper. This 
loose thread is then made tight by placing a gasket 
of lead or soft solder, a, in the beveled recess of 
the couphng and jamming it in tight by screwing 
down the follower. 

Pipe Supports.— All pipes, in both drainage 
system and water supply, should be well supported, 
not only to sustain the weight of the pipes and the 
water contained, but also to prevent the pipes from 





Fig. 121 

Netherland Pipe 

Hanger 

vibrating or getting out of alignment, and to with- 
stand any other shocks and strains they might be 
subjected to. Usually hangers are spaced on hori- 
zontal drains about 10 feet apart, while on vertical 
stacks of soil, waste and vent pipe supports are 

122 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



tL4 



X 



a u 



J 


^ 


a 


< 


< 


(•5 


H 


7: 








OS 




<: 




w 




PQ 



Safe load 
Uof 

breaking 
load 


•^iHt-UDCOt-OOlOOt-OOO-^ 

oot-ooooeoT-ioiooiojooo 

(MNi-i'^COCOCOtr-t't'OOasOT-H 


Breaking 
load of 
hanger 
in lbs. 


Oi-*crii-iTj<oo^ooo»ooooo 

THOa5•«*COOI^-C^]^0000001-l 

00 00 to 02 lO CO^ N 00 O 'I c^_ to o_ '^ 

rH rH tH I-? m" Co" CO" CO Co" -*" ■«< 


Weight of 
pipe and 
water on 
hanger if 
placed 10 

feet centers 


oooooooooooooo 
o oq lo rt lo ^_ o cq CO rH tx> Oi c^ "d; 

OOOinast^lOCOWOOTHOrHtO 
(MIMCO-*tr-OCOtOCO.-iOOC<l^ 


Weight of 
pipe and 

water for 

1 foot of 

pipe 


2.00 

2.82 

3.55 

4.91 

7.75 

10.54 

13.30 

16.22 

23.06 

31.01 

40.16 

50.09 

62.17 

74.64 


Weight of 
water on 
hanger if 
placed 10 

feet centers 


coooooooooooooo 
coc-_'Oiooooinooioioirooo 

CO lO 00 OJ CTJ O oi lO lO OJ 1> f.^ lO o 

rHi-IC0-*>O00(Nl'X>i-lt-'ll 

rH i-H (M (N CO 


Weight of 

water in 

1 foot of 

pipe 


.33 

.57 

.86 

1.25 

1.98 

3.00 

4.25 

5.50 

8.50 

12.25 

16.75 

21.75 

27.50 

34.00 


Weight of 

pipe on 
hanger if 
placed 10 

feet centers 


16.70 

22.50 

26.90 

36.60 

57.70 

75.54 

90.05 

107.20 

145.60 

187.60 

234.10 

283.40 

346.70 

406.40 


7-1 

+j o a) 


1.67 
2.25 
2.69 
3.66 

5.77 
7.54 
9.05 
10.72 
14.56 
18.76 
23.41 
28.34 
34.67 
40.64 


a m 
.H.S 


thTh'^C^j'SiC0C0-*1O«JC-0005O 



123 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 




usually placed at each floor of the building. The 
strength of hangers for various sizes of pipes and 
the loads they must sustain when spaced ten feet 
apart can be found in Table XII. 

Hangers and supports for hot 
water pipe should be so arranged as 
to allow for expansion and contrac- 
tion. 

Horizontal pipes that are run 
close to a wall can be well supported 
by Netherland hangers, Fig. 121, or 
by wall brackets, secured to the 
wall by expansion bolts, as shown 
in Fig. 122. When pipes are sus- 
pended from beams, 
pipe hangers, Fig. 
123, afford a good 
means of support. 
This type of hanger 
is provided with a clamp to attach 
it to an iron I beam, while the 
hanger shown in Fig. 124, is pro- 
vided with a lag screw, to screw in- 
to wooden beams. Both of these 
hangers provide for expansion and 
contraction, are adjustable and can 
be put on after the pipe is in place. 
A method of securing vertical 
pipes to I beams, is shown in Fig. 
125; with this form of hanger better results are 
obtained if a coupling, or fitting, is so located that 
it rests on the hangers. A figure-eight hanger is 
shown in Fig. 126. This hanger is hkewise used 

124 



Fig. 123 

Pipe Hanger for 

Iron Beam 




Fig. 124 

Pipe Hanger for 

Wooden Beam 



1^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems ^^f?{ 



to support vertical pipes, but only when two of 
them pass up on opposite sides of a beam. The 
last two hangers illustrated are of special design 





and must be made by a blacksmith. The others 
are stock designs that can be purchased at any 
supply house. 

Expansion of Soil and Waste Lines.— When 

soil and waste stacks are installed in high build- 
ings, local conditions are such that allowance 
should be made for expansion and contraction; 
under ordinary conditions, however, in buildings of 
moderate height provision need seldom be made 
for expansion of the stacks, the spring of wrought- 
iron pipe and flexible joints to cast-iron pipe com- 
pensating for any variation of length due to tem- 

125 



^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



perature. As a matter of fact, the range of tem- 
perature during the year should not vary 40 de- 
grees F. It is doubtful if it would vary half that 
much, but assuming a variation of temperature 
during the year of 40 degrees F. the expansion of 
a wrought-iron pipe in a building 200 feet high 
would be less than one inch. The vertical parts of 
a building, however, are subject to very much the 
same range of temperature as the pipes, 
and the entire building will expand cor- 
respondingly with the pipes. 

While special provision need seldom 
be made for expansion and contraction 

of soil, waste or 
vent pipes, pro- 
vision should be 
made to protect 
them from damage from settlement of 
the building or of the stacks. This can 
best be done by keeping all horizontal 
runs of pipe free from structural beams, 
by providing a swing joint at each floor 
~Fi^7m of the building where long horizontal 
Swing-Joint YUYi^ are taken from a vertical stack, and 
by providing flexible connection for all 
closet and slop-sink connections. A swing joint is 
shown in Fig. 127. It is made by placing the 
branch fitting in the stack at right angles to its 
final direction and turning it by means of an elbow 
and nipple, which provides a swing joint that per- 
mits a slight expansion of the stack or settlement 
of the building without excessively straining either 
pipe or fittings. 

126 




Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



More important, still, than the swing joint, is 
a flexible connection for water closets and slop 
sinks. There are but very few buildings in which 
some settlement of the floors, walls or stacks does 
not occur. This 
is noticeable in 
many buildings 
when settlement 
or shrinkage of 
the floor beams 
has left the water 
closets raised 
from I to § inch 
above the finished 
floor, held in that 
position by the 
lead bends, 
wrought- pipes, or 
soil pipes, to which 
they are connec- 
ted. On the other 
hand, in tall buildings, settlement of the stacks has 
often pulled the pipes apart at some point, usually 
at the closet floor flange. Owing to this liability 
of being first raised above the floor, and later 
broken, and the danger of being pulled apart, the 
closet connections to the drainage system in a 
building has always been known as the weakest 
point in the system and the one most liable to cause 
trouble. This connection can now be made perfect- 
ly secure, however, by interposing a flexible con- 
nection similar to that shown in Fig. 128, between 
the closet floor flange and the soil pipe. The con- 

127 




Fig. 128 

Flexible Connection for 

Water Closets 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



nection can be had in the form of an ordinary lead 
bend, with the flexible corrugations on the vertical 
leg, or in the form of a straight piece of pipe. 
Wherever a connection similar to this is used, in 
case of a settlement or shrinkage of the floors, the 
closets will automatically adjust themselves to the 
new conditions by pressing the folds of the connec- 
tion together, so that the bases of the closets will 
always remain on the floor. On the other hand, if 
the stack settles, instead of breaking the pipe or 
the closet connection as was formerly the case, the 
folds of the flexible connection, yielding to the 
stress, open to compensate for the settlement, with- 
out damage to the drainage system or the fixture. 
In case the soil pipe becomes pulled to one side by 
the settlement, the flexible connection will still 
compensate for the derangement, by contracting 
on one side and expanding on the others. 

Expansion of Water Pipes.— Water pipes ex- 
pand or contract for every change of temperature 
to which they are subjected. To provide for this 

variation 

Q'-O"— >| in length 

expansion 
loops are 
placed in 
the verti- 
cal lines of 
water and 

circulation pipes in all tall buildings, to permit of 
expansion and contraction of the lines without in- 
jury to the pipes. 




Fig. 129 

Expansion Loop for 

Hot Water Pipes 



128 



The loops are usually from 6 to 8 feet long, 
made as shown in Fig. 129, and are spaced about 
50 feet apart. Usually hot water and circulation 
pipes are fastened midway between loops and 
allowed to expand both up and down. 

The length that water pipes will expand de- 
pends upon the degree to which they are heated 
and the material of the pipes. Within ordinary 
ranges of temperature cast iron varies 0.00000617 
of its length for each degree F. heated or cooled. 
Wrought-iron pipe varies 0.00000686 of its length 
for each degree F. heated or cooled. Hence the 
expansion or contraction of any pipe, when the 
length and temperature of water are known, can 
be found by the following rule: 

Rule: Multiply the length of pipe in inches 
by the number of degrees F. it is heated or cooled, 
and multiply the product by the coefficient of ex- 
pansion for the kind of pipe used. 

Expressed as a Formula: 
e = Ihc 
when 

I = length of pipe in inches 

h= degrees F. the pipe is heated or cooled 

c = coefficient of expansion (0.00000617) cast 
iron, .00000686 wrought iron, .00001037 
brass, .00000955 copper, and .00000599 
steel 

e = elongation of pipe in inches. 

Example: What will be the expansion of a 
wrought-iron pipe 100 feet long, when heated from 
60 degree to 212 degree temperature? 

129 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



Solution: 100 feet + 12 = 1,200 inches, and 
1,200 inches X 152 = 182,400 X .00000686 = 1.25 
inches. 

Tables of Linear Expansion.— Tables showing 
the linear expansion of cast-iron, wrought-iron and 
brass pipe for each 100 feet length at different 
temperatures are very convenient for reference, 
and are incorporated here to save the necessity for 
calculating the expansion of pipes, the approximate 
elongation being sufficient for all practical pur- 
poses. The expansion of cast-iron pipes can be 
found in Table XIII; that of wrought pipe is Table 
XIV; and the expansion of brass pipe can be found 
in Table XV. By multiplying the expansion in 
one-hundredth parts of any kind of pipe by the 
decimal parts of 100 or by any multiple of 100, the 
total expansion for that length can be determined. 
Thus, if at a temperature difference of 338 degrees 
Fahrenheit 100 feet of cast-iron pipe expands 2.5 
inches, in 25 feet it would expand .25 X 2.5 = .62 
inch, while in 300 feet it would expand 3X2.5=7.5 
inches. 

Cleaning Exposed Piping.— In the making-up 
of wrought pipe in the building, if a little care is 
exercised by the workmen, all exposed pipes can 
be installed with lines running parallel spaced equal 
distances apart throughout the entire length of the 
runs; the hangers put on true and in line with one 
another; the pipe left free from tool marks when 
gripped with tongs or wrenches, and all threads 
screwed in so they will not show where made-up 
into fittings. If tool marks or threads show in the 

130 



jj\ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 















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131 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



finished work, the workmanship cannot be con- 
sidered first class, nor can it if threads or pipes are 
crooked so that the lines are not parallel and true. 
Ordinarily, a good fitter straightens every length 
of pipe he is going to use in a long run, by taking 
out waves and crooks received by the pipe after it 
left the factory. Sometimes a fitting is found 
which is tapped crooked. In such cases the better 
plan is to set the fitting aside to use on concealed 
work, but if no other similar fitting is at hand, a 
crooked thread can be cut on the pipe to compen- 
sate for the crooked thread in the fitting. 

Tool marks can generally be removed by going 
over them gently with a fine file, and following 
with a piece of fine sand paper or emery cloth. 

All wrought pipe is more or less soiled and the 
galvanizing tarnished from exposure to weather by 
the time it reaches the workmen for installation, 
and oil, grease, and lead from the workmens hands 
do not add any to the appearance of the pipe by 
the time it is installed. This is of no importance 
in concealed work, but in exposed piping it is as 
important to remove the dirt and brighten up the 
pipe as it is to remove the tool marks. Wrought 
pipes can be cleaned after they have been installed 
by scouring them with a wet cloth and fine white 
sand, or if sand of the right quality is not obtain- 
able, powdered pumice can be substituted, a few 
cents worth being sufficient for an ordinary build- 
ing. 



132 




WORKING POLISHED BRASS 
AND NIGKEL-PLATED PIPE 




Y T H E exercise of a little care in 
handling, nickel- plated and polished 
brass pipes can be cut, threaded and 
made-up as quickly as can iron pipe, 
and without marring or scratching the 
nickel-plated or polished surface. To do so, how- 
ever, it is necessary to understand the nature of a 
brass pipe, the tools required for handling it, and 
the method of using the tools. Nickel-plated pipes 
are generally abbreviated N. P. pipes. 

Brass pipes, of iron-pipe sizes, are made in 
stock lengths of 12 feet, although special lengths 
can be had to order. The lengths are seamless 
drawn, can be had plain, polished or nickel-plated 
and tempered hard, soft or medium; the medium 
temper, sometimes called regular temper, is just 
sufficiently annealed to make it suitable for plumb- 
ing and steam work. Seamless brass pipes, of iron- 
pipe sizes, are made only up to 6 inches in diameter; 
up to that size they may be had in standard and 
extra-heavy weight, which correspond, in safe- 

133 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



working pressure, with standard and extra-heavy 
wrought iron pipes. 

The sizes and weights of iron pipe sizes of 
brass pipe may be found in Table XVI: 

TABLE XVI 
SIZES AND WEIGHTS OF SEAMLESS BRASS TUBING 



IRON PIPE SIZE 
Inches 


H 


Vi 


% 


Vz 


1 


1'4 


l!'2 


Weights per lin. foot 


.25 


.43 


.62 


.90 


1.25 


1.70 


2.50 


IRON PIPE SIZE 

Inches 


2 


2V2 


3 


ZVz 


4 


5 




Weights per lin. foot 


3.00 


4.00 


5.75 


8.30 


10.90 


12.75 



Brass fittings should correspond in finish with 
the pipes they join. The fittings are similar in 
pattern to beaded malleable iron fittings. 

Vise Jaws for Nickel- Plated Pipe.— Ordinary 

vise jaws cannot be used for holding polished brass 
or nickel-plated pipes on account of the way they 
would crush the pipe and mar the surface. In 
place of the toothed jaws of the ordinary vise, 
friction jaws, which may be held by the jaws of 
an ordinary vise, are substituted. A common 

practice i s t o split 
along its center axis 
a piece of brass pipe 
about 3 inches long 
Fig. 130 2indi two sizes larger 

Vise and Wrench Jaws or Clamp 

for Brass Pipe than the pipe to be 

cut, and place the split piece of pipe in the jaws of 
the pipe vise, where they serve as friction jaws to 
hold the nickel-plated pipe. The pipe to be worked 
is not placed directly in the friction jaws, however, 

134 




- Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



but is imbedded in plaster of paris or powdered 
rosin, which keeps the pipe from turning and at 
the same time protects the poKshed or nickel-plated 
surface from being scratched if the pipe should 
accidentally be turned. Powdered rosin holds the 
stronger, but is harder to remove from the pipe 
after the thread is cut; for this reason plaster of 
paris is more commonly used for the friction bed. 
When rosin is used and clings fast to the pipe, it 
can be removed by wiping the pipe with a cloth 
moistened with gasoline. 

A better set of clamps for a vise, and a set 
that can be used also for making up the pipe, is 
shown in Fig. 130. The clamps are made by split- 
ting in two longitudinally a wrought-iron pipe 
coupling two sizes larger than the pipe to be held, 
then casting on the inner side solder linings that 
just fit the circumference of the pipe. The threads 
of the coupling hold the solder lining firmly in 
place, while the solder presents a soft surface to 
the pipe it holds should the plaster of paris or rosin 
fall away. Sometimes friction clutches, made 
either of split pipe or couplings and lined with 
sheet lead, are used. 

A hinged vise is the most convenient to use 
when working polished brass or nickle-plated pipe. 
The top part of the vise can then be thrown back, 
the lower jaw placed in the vise and covered with 
plaster, more plaster then placed on top of the pipe, 
the top jaw placed in position, the vise closed, 
tightened, and the pipe is ready to cut, thread and 
screw a fitting on. 

135 



^S Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems n 



Cutting and Threading Brass Pipe. — For cut- 
ting brass pipe a good, sharp cutter should be used. 
Brass pipe is much softer than wrought-iron and 
steel pipe, and a much larger burr will be formed 
on the inside of brass pipe if a dull cutter be used. 
When the pipe is cut the end should be reamed to 
remove the burr. For threading brass pipes ad- 
justable dies are most suitable. The thread can 
then be gauged to suit the tapping of the fittings, 
so that when the fittings are made-up no portion 
of the thread will show, and the pipe and fittings 
will present a smooth, continuous surface unbroken 
by patches of brass showing through the nickel- 
plating. Water must be used freely when cutting 
brass threads to keep chip from becoming hot and 
cleaving with rough edges. Water, used when 
cutting brass pipe, takes the place of lard or cot- 
tonseed oil used when cutting iron-pipe threads. 
Care must be taken when cutting threads on brass 
pipe to wrap paper around the pipe where the 
guide presses against its surface. The paper not 
only guides the die truer, so as to make a more 
perfect thread, but also protects the nickel-plating 
from abrasion of the iron guide. The number of 
threads on the end of a brass pipe are usually less 
than on an iron pipe. On a brass pipe five or six 
threads including the imperfect threads generally 
are sufficient. 

Bending Brass Pipe.— Brass pipe or nickel- 
plated brass pipe can be bent into any reasonable, 
shape much easier than can iron pipe and almost 
as easily as can lead pipe; furthermore, the bend- 

136 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 




ing can be accomplished without in any way injur- 
ing- the finished surface of the pipe. The best way 
to bend brass pipe is to drill a hole through a short 
two-inch plank of hardwood or yellow 
pine, Fig. 131, and use 
the hole in this plank for 
a bending form. The 
soft edges of the wood give under the 
pressure of the pipe without in any way 
injuring it. Annealed pipe, generally 
called regular temper pipe, is the best 
kind for bending. 

Making-Up Nickel - Plated Pipe.— 

Fittings should be made-up on nickel- 
piankfor platcd plpe before the pipe is removed 
Bra^s^pipe fi^o"^ ■''^he vise. This can be done by 

screwing a short piece of pipe in a side 
outlet of the fitting and using the pipe to make-up 
the fitting. To make-up pipe in place, special 
brass pipe wrenches or a Stillson wrench with pipe 
clamps must be used. The clamps used in the 
jaws of the Stillson wrench may be the same ones 
that are used in the pipe vise and which are shown 
in Fig. 130. This combination makes a very satis- 
factory wrench for making-up brass or nickel- 
plated pipe; it is inexpensive, easy to operate and 
possesses greater strength of grip than any other 
kind. 

Wrenches for Nickel-Plated Pipe.— A friction 
pipe wrench suitable for making-up brass and 
nickel-plated pipes, which can be made by any fitter 
in a few minutes, is shown in Fig. 132. A piece 

137 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 

of heavy canvas, or a section of light, pliable linen 
hose about 2 feet long, is securely bolted to a hard- 
wood handle made of hickory, maple, ash or oak. 
The under side of the canvas or hose is rubbed 
with rosin or plaster of paris and is then ready for 




Wrench for Brass and Nickel-Plated Pipe 

use. The manner of using this type of wrench is 
shown in Fig. 133. The flexible tailpiece is 
wrapped around the pipe and then doubled under, 
so that the loop a, is pinched between the pipe and 
the handle end. Any pressure on the handle in 
the direction of the arrow will then tighten the 
tailpiece and make it more firmly grip the pipe, 
while an opposite pressure on the handle releases 
the friction clutch so that the wrench can be moved 

back for another grip. 
For making-up pipes not 
larger than f -inch in dia- 
meter a handle 12 inches 
long with a tailpiece 20 
or 24 inches will be found 
the most convenient. 
For larger sizes of pipe 
longer and heavier handles and tailpieces are re- 
quired. For general all-round use a wrench with 
24-inch tailpiece will be found satisfactory. 

Wrenches for making up nickel - plated pipe 
can now be purchased from dealers in plumbing 

138 




Fig. 133 

Method of Using Brass 

Pipe Wrench 



>^ Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems ^ 



and heating supplies. One of such wrenches is 
shown in Fig. 134. It is a modification of the 
wrench shown in Fig. 132, over which it possesses 
no advantage except that it may be purchased 
ready made. The split-coupling clamps used in a 
vise for 
holdi ng 
nickel- 




plated '^^^^5™' ^'^■''' 



^ Brass Pipe Wrench 

pipe while 

being cut and threaded may likewise be used in 
connection with a Stillson wrench for making-up 
pipe. The clamps are put on the pipe to be made 
up with plaster of paris or rosin on the jaws, and 
the clamps are then gripped in the jaws of a 
Stillson wrench the same as would be an ordinary 
coupling. 

Making-up Brass Pipe. — In making-up brass 
or nickel-plated pipes, particular care must be ex- 
ercised not to stretch or split the fittings. The 
fittings are cast, and cast brass fittings do not 
possess the strength of malleable iron fittings, so 
that the threads cannot be screwed home until they 
encounter equal resistance. The best way to do is 
to set the dies, if adjustable, so they will cut 
threads of the right size to make-up perfectly tight 
in the fittings when the thread is all concealed. If 
solid dies are used, select pieces of tin of just the 
right weight so that when put on the teeth of the 
die it will cut a thread of the required size. No 
trouble will then be experienced in making joints 
perfectly tight and without any of the thread part 

139 



Wrought-Pipe Drainage Systems 



showing. In screwing the pipes into fittings, a 
little lubricating oil, graphite or lead may be put 
on the male threads on the pipes. Never put the 
joint paste in the fitting as it does no particular 
good, and may later find its way into the water. 
Sometimes, when threads are a little loose they are 
made-up with lamp-wick. That is, a single strand 
of lamp-wick is wound around the thread on the 
end of a pipe, being placed in the depressed part, 
and wound so the fiber will be drawn-in not pushed 
out when the two parts come together. When the 
joint is finally made-up, this lamp- wick insures 
tight threads. It is much more workmanlike how- 
ever, to cut the threads to a perfect fit and not de- 
pend upon paste or fiber of any kind to make the 
joints tight. 

Brass and copper pipes, are sometimes put to- 
gether with sweat-joints. To sweat joints to- 
gether, a soldering salt or fluid of some kind is put 
on the male and female threads, which are then 
tinned with half-and-half solder. The fitting and 
pipe end are then heated until the solder is soft, 
and while in that condition the threads are screwed 
together. When the pipe and fitting cool, the joint 
is not only held together and made tight by a 
thread, but also with solder. 




140 



APPENDIX 



WELDING WROUGHT PIPES BY 
THE THERMIT PROCESS. 




N pipe fitting practice, wrought pipes 
are often required to be welded end to 
end, instead of being connected with 
the usual threaded pipe couphngs. 
Continuous pipe coils are required in 
creameries; well casings in oil regions are often con- 
tinuous; refrigeration pipes and coils may often be 
welded advantageously into complete systems, and 
steam and water pipes aboard ship are often re- 
quired to be welded. The welding of pipes, how- 
ever, finds its greatest field of usefulness in con- 
necting large sizes of pipe in the installation of 
refrigeration, steam and hot water service mains, 
buried in the streets or located in tunnels or pipe 
ducts. Notwithstanding the extent to which this 
method of connecting pipes has been carried within 
recent years, how many are there who know that 
the pipes can be welded almost as easily as a plum- 
ber wipes a solder joint on lead pipe, and by a 
process almost analogous. Up to within compara- 
tively recent times the welding together of wrought 
pipes, end to end, in place, was almost impossible, 
or at all events so costly as to be almost out of 

141 



reason; lately, however, the process has been made 
both simple and inexpensive by the introduction of 
Thermit into practice. 

And what is Thermit? 

It is simply a physical mixture of finely pulver- 
ized aluminum and iron oxide. In its original 
state, aluminum is found as a constituent of com- 
mon gray clay. When it is separated from the 
clay in the heat of an electric furnace, it forms 
the metal aluminum, which has a marked avidity 
for oxygen. If it is then finely pulverized and 
mixed with the proper proportion of peroxide of 
iron, commonly called rust, it forms the reagent. 
Thermit. In this state it remains inert, waiting 
for the proper temperature to free the oxygen 
from the iron, when it will again unite with the 
aluminum with an evolution of intense heat. To 
start a reaction, the Thermit is ignited in one spot 
by the aid of about a teaspoonful of ignition pow- 
der. The combustion is then communicated 
throughout the mass without the aid of heat or 
power from the outside; and during the process of 
combustion, which occupies about 15 seconds, the 
burning mixture produces the intense temperature 
of approximately 5400 degrees Fahrenheit. 

The intensity of this heat can better be im- 
agined by comparing it with the fusing points of 
iron and steel. At a temperature of 2520 degrees 
Fahrenheit, or less than one-half that of Thermit, 
steel is reduced to a molten state. Wrought iron, 
which is more refractory than steel, fuses at the 
higher temperature of 2912 degrees Fahrenheit, 
which is slightly over one-half the temperature of 
Thermit. 

It is due to this great heat produced by the 
combustion of Thermit, that welding of iron and 

142 



steel by the process is made possible, as the excess 
heat is transmitted to the metals to be welded, thus 
raising the temperature to the welding point. 
During the reaction or combustion which takes 
place, the oxygen contained in the iron oxide com- 
bines with the pulverized aluminum to form a high- 
ly superheated liquid slag of aluminum oxide, or 
liquid clay. The iron, which is set free by the 
combining of the oxygen with the aluminum, and 
is heated to the same high temperature as the slag, 
sinks to the bottom of the crucible. Thus super- 
heated molten iron and slag is poured around the 
pipes to be welded and when the required temper- 




Fig. 135 

ature is attained, the ends of the pipes are forced 
together and the weld is made. 

Skilled labor is not necessary for this process, 
nor are expensive and cumbersome tools. An out- 
fit consisting of mold, clamps, crucible and neces- 
sary wrenches is all that is required, and the pro- 
cess is as simple as it is quick and easy. A better 
idea of the manner of connecting pipes by means 
of a Thermit weld, will be had by referring to Fig. 
135, which shows how the joints are prepared for 
welding. The ends of the pieces to be welded are 
filed perfectly true and the ends are then butted 

143 



carefully together, as shown at a. A set of 
clamps, such as shown in the illustration, is then 
placed on the pipes, which are arranged in perfect 
alignment. When the pipes are ready, a cast-iron 
mold, similar to that shown in Fig. 136, is placed 
in position. This mold is made in two parts, the 
upper part having a gate or opening, a, to admit 
the superheated metal. In a flat-bottom crucible, 
held in a pair of tongs, the Thermit is ignited. 
After the reaction has taken place, the upper part 
of the vessel is filled with the slag, which occupies 
three times the space of the superheated liquid 
iron. When the whole mass is in a liquid state, 
the iron collects at the bottom of the crucible. 
Then all is ready, and the superheated liquid mass is 
poured into the mold through the gate. The slag 
flows in first, and coming into contact with the 
walls of the mold and the pieces of pipes to be 
welded, adheres in a thick layer to those surfaces, 
thus protecting them from contact with the liquid 
metal, which runs in last. When the liquid mass 
in the mold has softened the ends of the pipes, and 
raised them to a welding temperature, the pipes 
are forced together by means of the clamps, thus 
completing the weld. After the weld has chilled, 
the mold and clamps may be removed and the layer 
of slag and metal knocked off. The joint will then 
be found to be almost as strong as the pipe else- 
where, and the weld evidenced only by a slight 
up-setting of the pipe at this point. 

The crucible and tongs used for firing and 
pouring Thermit are shown together in Fig. 137. 
The man who handles the tongs, as well as all his 
helpers, wear blue goggles to prevent being 
momentarily blinded by the incandescence of the 
liquid Thermit steel and slag. 

144 



Vertical pipes are welded as easily as those in 
a horizontal position, but a different shaped mold 
box is used for the purpose. 

Thermit powder is put up in paper bags, each 
bag" containing the quantity necessary to weld a 
given size of pipe; each bag is called a welding 




XKK 



on 



J 



Fig. 136 

portion for the size designated, so that nothing in 
the way of judgment in the mixing of a charge is 
left to the workman, who, by following instruc- 
tions knows he will get a definite result from every 
bag of powder. 

Thermit is not used exclusively but only inci- 
dentally for welding pipes. The greatest field of 




Fig. 137 

usefulness is welding parts of heavy structures in 
place, which require great strength at the weld, 
and cannot be removed for repairs without great 
expense. It is used extensively for making repairs 
to steamships, locomotives and machinery of all 
kinds. 

145 



INDEX 



Advantages of Wrought Pipe 
Systems 2 

Armstrong Pipe Threading 
Machine 34 

B 

Bending Brass Pipe 136 

Bending Forms and Machines, 
Pipe 76 

Bending Wrought Pipe 71 

Bends, Recessed Drainage 60 

Bends, Types of Pipe 71 

Branches, Recessed Drainage. . 56 

Brass Pipe, Bending 136 

Brass Pipe, Cutting and 
Threading 136 

Brass Pipe, Making Up 139 

Brass Pipe, Working PoHshed 133 

Butt Welded Pipe 9 

G 

Centre of Fittings 66 

Center to Center Measurements 86 

Center to End Measurements . . 85 

Chain Tongs, Size of 82 

Cleaning Exposed Piping 130 

Coating and Material of 
Drainage Fittings 64 

Coating Wrought Pipes 8 

Coils, Types of Iron Pipe 74 

Connections, Measuring for 
Forty-five Degree 89 



Connections, Right and Left . . 120 

Connections, Running Thread 121 

Corrosion of Wrought Pipes . . 6 

Couplings, Reversing 118 

Crane Pipe Cutting and 
Threading Machine 35 

Crooked Threads, Cutting 27 

Cutting and Threading Brass 
Pipe 136 

Cutting and Threading Tools, 
Pipe 31 

Cutting Crooked Threads 27 

Cutting Nipples 29 

Cutting, Oil for Thread 43 

Cutting Pipe 17 

Cutting Pipe Threads 24 

Cutting Threads to Fit Tap- 
pings 25 

D 

Degrees in Fittings, Explana- 
tion of 87 

Dies, Nye Pipe Threading 42 

Dies, Pipe Threading 37 

Dimensions and Weights of 
Extra Strong Wrought 
Pipe 13 

Dimensions and Weights of 
Extra Strong Wrought 
Pipe 15 

Dimensions and Weights of 
Standard Wrought Pipe ... 12 

Dimensions and W eighths of 
Wrought Pipe 11 

Double Extra Strong Wrought 
Pipe 14 

Drainage Bends, Recessed .... 60 

Drainage Branches, Recessed.. 56 



Drainage Fittings, Material 
and Coating of 64 

Drainage Fittings, Recessed . . 55 
Drainage Fittings, Tappings 
for 65 

Drainage Fittings, Types of . . . 55 

Drainage Systems, Installing 
Wrought Pipe 117 

Drainage Systems, Materials 
for Wrought Pipe 1 

Drainage Traps, Recessed 55 



Fittings, Ventilation 47 

Fittings, Wrought Pipe 47 

Flange Union Joints 119 

Flat Threads 23 

Forbes Pipe Threading 

Machine 33 

Forms and Machines, Pipe 

Bending 76 

Forty-five Degree Connections, 

Measuring for 89 

Full Weight and Merchant 

Wrought Pipes 16 



Electrolysis of Wrought Pipes 9 

End to Center Measurements . . 85 

End-to-End Measurements .... 85 

Expansion of Pipes, Linear. . . . 130 

Expansion of Soil and Waste 
Lines 125 

Expansion of Water Pipes 128 

Explanation of Degrees in Fit- 
tings 87 

Explanation of Signs 83 

Exposed Piping, Cleaning 130 

Extra Strong Wrought Pipe ... 14 

Extra Strong Wrought Pipe, 
Weights and Dimensions 
of 13 

Extra Strong Wrought Pipe, 
Weights and Dimensions 
of 15 



Fitters' Tools, Requirements of 31 

Fittings, Centre of 66 

Fittings, Explanation of De- 
grees in 87 

Fittings, Material and Coating 

of Drainage 64 

Fittings, Reading 53 

Fittings, Recessed Drainage .. 55 

Fittings, Tappings for 

Drainage 65 

Fittings, Types of 47 

Fittings, Types of Drainage ... 55 



G 

Galvanized Wrought Pipe 7 

Gauges, Pipe Thread 22 

Guides for Stocks, Supple- 
mental 25 

I 

Installing Wrought Pipe 
Drainage Systems 117 

Instruments, Measuring 91 

Iron Pipe Coils, Types of 74 

Iron Pipe, Reaming 19 

J 

Joint Pastes, Use of 79 

Joints, Flange Union 119 

Joints for Wrought Pipe 17 

L 

Lap Welded Pipe 10 

Laying Out Work from Plans 101 

Left and Right Connections ... 120 

Left and Right Hand Nipples, 
Stock Sizes of 52 

Left-Hand and Right-Hand 
Threads 26 

Length of Pipe Threads 44 

Linear Expansion of Pipes 130 

Lines, Expansion of Soil and 
Waste 125 



M 



Machine, Armstrong: Pipe 
Threading 34 

Machine, Crane Pipe Cutting 
and Threading 35 

Machine, Forbes Pipe Thread- 
ing 33 

Machines and Forms, Pipe 
Bending 76 

Making up Brass Pipe 139 

Making up Nickel-plated Pipe 137 

Making-up Pipe 79 

Material and Coating of 
Drainage Fittings 64 

Materials for Wrought Pipe 
Drainage Systems 1 

Measurements and Sketches ... 83 

Measurements, Center to 
Center 86 

Measurements, Center to End 85 

Measurements, End-to-End .... 85 

Measurements, Reading 84 

Measuring for Forty-five 
Degree Connections 89 

Measuring Instruments 91 

Merchant and Full Weight 
Wrought Pipes 16 



N 



Nickel-plated Pipe, Making up 137 

Nickel-plated Pipe, Vise Jaws 
for 134 

Nickel-plated Pipe, Working . . 133 

Nickel-plated Pipe, Wrenches 
for 137 

Nipples, Cutting 29 

Nipples, Stock Sizes of Right 
and Left Hand 52 

Nipples, Stock Sizes of Right 
Hand 51 

Nye Pipe Threading Dies 42 

o 

Oiffor Thread Cutting 43 



Pastes, Use of Joint 79 

Pipe, Bending Brass 136 

Pipe Bending Forms and 

Machines 76 

Pipe, Bending Wrought 71 

Pipe Bends, Types of 71 

Pipe, Butt Welded 9 

Pipe Coils, Types of Iron 74 

Pipe, Cutting 17 

Pipe, Cutting and Threading 

Brass 136 

Pipe Cutting and Threading 

Machine, Crane 35 

Pipe Cutting and Threading 

Tools 31 

Pipe, Double Extra Strong 

Wrought 14 

Pipe Drainage Systems, In- 
stalling Wrought 117 

Pipe, Extra Strong Wrought . . 14 

Pipe Fittings, Wrought 47 

Pipe, Galvanized Wrought .... 7 

Pipe, Joints for Wrought 17 

Pipe, Lap Welded 10 

Pipe, Making-up 79 

Pipe, Making up Brass 139 

Pipe, Making up Nickel-plated 137 

Pipe, Properties of Wrought. . . 1 

Pipe, Reaming Iron 19 

Pipe Sketches 92 

Pipe, Strength of Seam in 

Wrought 5 

Pipe Supports 122 

Pipe, Tensile Strength of 

Wrought 3 

Pipe Thread Gauges 22 

Pipe Threading Dies 37 

Pipe Threading Dies, Nye 42 

Pipe Threading Machine, Arm- 
strong 34 

Pipe Threading Machine, 

Forbes 33 

Pipe Threads, Cutting 24 

Pipe Threads, Length of 44 



Pipe Threads, Standard 20 

Pipe Tongs and Wrenches 80 

Pipe, Torsional Strength of 
Wrought 6 

Pipe, Vise Jaws for Nickel- 
plated 134 

Pipe Vises 33 

Pipe, Weights and Dimensions 
of Extra Strong Wrought 13 

Pipe, Weights and Dimensions 
of Extra Strong Wrought 15 

Pipe, Weights and Dimensions 
of Standard Wrought 12 

Pipe, Weights and Dimensions 
of Wrought 11 

Pipe, Working Nickel-plated . . 133 

Pipe, Working Polished Brass 133 

Pipe, Working Wrought 17 

Pipe, Wrenches for Nickel- 
plated 137 

Pipe Wrenches, Size and Range 
of 81 

Pipe, Wrought Iron and Steel.. 2 

Pipes, Coating Wrought 8 

Pipes, Corrosion of Wrought ... 6 

Pipes, Electrolysis of Wrought 9 

Pipes, Expansion of Water 128 

Pipes, Linear Expansion of 130 

Pipes, Merchant and Full 
Weight Wrought 16 

Pipes, Weights and Dimensions 
of Standard Wrought 12 

Pipes, Welding Wrought by the 
Thermit Process 141 

Piping, Cleaning Exposed 130 

Planning the Work 101 

Plans, Laying Out Work from 101 

Polished Brass Pipe, Working 138 

Process, Welding Wrought 
Pipes by the Thermit 141 

Properties of Wrought Pipe ... 1 



R 

Range and Size of Pipe 
Wrenches 81 

Reading Fittings 53 

Reading Measurements 84 



Reaming Iron Pipe 19 

Recessed Drainage Bends 60 

Recessed Drainage Branches . . 56 

Recessed Drainage Fittings ... 55 

Recessed Drainage Traps 55 

Requirements of Fitters' Tools 31 

Reversing Couplings 118 

Right and Left Connections . . . 120 

Right and Left Hand Nipples, 
Stock Sizes of 52 

Right-Hand and Left-Hand 
Threads 26 

Right-hand Nipples, Stock 
Sizes of 51 

Running Thread Connections . . 121 



Seam in Wrought Pipe, 
Strength of 5 

Signs, Explanation of 83 

Size and Range of Pipe 
Wrenches 81 

Size of Chain Tongs 82 

Sizes of Right and Left Hand 
Nipples, Stock 52 

Sizes of Right Hand Nipples, 
Stock 51 

Sketches and Measurements ... 83 

Sketches, Pipe 92 

Soil and Waste Lines, Expan- 
sion of 125 

Standard Pipe Threads ...;.... 20 

Standard Wrought Pipe, 
Weights and Dimensions of 12 

Steel and Wrought Iron Pipe . . 2 

Stock Sizes of Right and Left 
Hand Nipples 52 

Stock Sizes of Right Hand 
Nipples 51 

Stocks, Supplemental Guides 
for 25 

Strength of Seam in Wrought 
Pipe 5 

Strength of Wrought Pipe, 
Tensile 3 

Strength of Wrought Pipe, 
Torsional 6 



Supplemental Guides for 
Stocks 25 

Supports, Pipe 122 

Systems, Advantages of 
Wrought Pipe 2 

Systems, Installing Wrought 
Pipe Drainage 117 

Systems, Materials for 
Wrought Pipe Drainage ... 1 



T 

Tables of Linear Expansion of 
Pipes 130 

Tappings, Cutting Threads to 
Fit 25 

Tappings for Drainage Fittings 65 

Tensile Strength of Wrought 
Pipe 3 

Thermit Process, Welding 
Wrought Pipes by the 141 

Thread Connections, Running 121 

Thread Cutting, Oil for 43 

Thread Gauges, Pipe 22 

Threading and Cutting Brass 
Pipe 136 

Threading and Pipe Cutting 
Machine, Crane 35 

Threading and Cutting Tools, 

Pipe 31 ■ 

Threading, Nye Pipe Dies .... 42 

Threading, Pipe Dies 37 

Threads, Cutting Crooked 27 

Threads, Cutting Pipe 24 

Threads, Cutting to Fit Tap- 
pings 25 

Threads, Flat 23 

Threads, Length of Pipe 44 

Threads, Right-Hand and 
Left- Hand 26 

Threads, Standard Pipe 20 

Tongs and Wrenches, Pipe .... 80 

Tongs, Size of Chain 82 

Tools, Pipe Cutting and 
Threading 31 

Tools, Requirements of Fit- 
ters' 31 

Torsional Strength of Wrought 
Pipe 6 



Traps, Recessed Drainage 55 

Types of Drainage Fittings .... 55 

Types of Fittings 47 

Types of Irpn Pipe Coils 74 

Types of Pipe Bends 71 

u 

Union Joints, Flange 119 

Use of Joint Pastes 79 

V 

Ventilation Fittings 47 

Vise Jaws for Nickel-plated 
Pipe 134 

Vises, Pipe 83 

w 

Waste and Soil Lines, Expan- 
sion of 125 

Water Pipes, Expansion of 128 

Weights and Dimensions of 
Extra Strong Wrought 
Pipe 13 

Weights and Dimensions of 
Extra Strong Wrought 
Pipe 15 

Weights and Dimensions of 
Standard Wrought Pipe ... 12 

Weights and Dimensions of 
Wrought Pipe 11 

Welded Pipe, Butt 9 

Welded Pipe, Lap 10 

Welding Wrought Pipes by the 
Thermit Process 141 

Work from Plans, Laying Out 101 

Work, Planning the 101 

Working Nickel-plated Pipe . . . 133 

Working Polished Brass Pipe. . 133 

Working Wrought Pipe 17 

Wrenches and Tongs, Pipe .... 80 

Wrenches for Nickel-plated 
Pipe 137 

Wrenches, Size and Range of 
Pipe 81 



Wrought Iron and Steel Pipe . . 2 

Wroug-ht Pipe, Bending- 71 

Wrought Pipe, Double Extra 

Strong 14 

Wrought Pipe Drainage 
Systems, Installing 117 

Wrought Pipe Drainage 

Systems, Materials for 1 

Wrought Pipe, Extra Strong . . 14 

Wrought Pipe Fittings 47 

Wrought Pipe, Galvanized 7 

Wrought Pipe, Joints for 17 

Wrought Pipe, Properties of . . 1 

Wrought Pipe, Strength of 

Seam in 5 

Wrought Pipe Systems, 

Advantages of 2 

Wrought Pipe, Tensile 

Strength of 3 



Wrought Pipe, Torsional 
Strength of 6 

Wrought Pipe, Weights and 
Dimensions of 11 

Wrought Pipe, Weights and 
Dimensions of Extra 
Strong 13 

Wrought Pipe, Weights and 
Dimensions of Extra 
Strong 15 

Wrought Pipe, Weights and 
Dimensions of Standard ... 12 

Wrought Pipe, Working 17 

Wrought Pipes, Coating 8 

Wrought Pipes, Ck)rrosion of . . 6 

Wrought Pipes, Electrolysis of 9 

Wrought Pipes, Merchant and 
Full Weight 16 

Wrought Pipes, Welding by 
the Thermit Process 141 



m 10 1910 



